Wetlands, Biodiversity and the Ramsar Convention intro

Wetlands, Biodiversity and the Ramsar Convention:the role of the Convention on Wetlands in the Conservation and Wise Use of Biodiversity

Defining the boundaries of Europe is a difficult task and one which is open to a wide variety of geopolitical, biogeographical and other interpretations. Within the framework of the Ramsar Convention, added complexities arise from the fact that several European Contracting Parties have dependent territories in other regions of the world. However, for the purposes of this publication, Europe is considered to include the area from the Atlantic and northern Mediterranean coastlines to the Ural Mountains, the Ural River and the northwest shoreline of the Caspian Sea. Greenland is excluded, but Iceland, Turkey and the trans-Caucasian countries are included. Within this area of approximately 10 million square kilometres - less than 10% of the world's land surface - are crammed no fewer than 48 independent states, as recognized officially by the United Nations (mid-1995).

Thirty-six of these states are Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention, with 16 belonging to the Eastern European Ramsar region and 20 to the Western European region. The two regions were established by the Conference of the Parties in 1987 to reflect the political realities at that time. However, European Contracting Parties have decided to maintain the arrangement to reflect ongoing practical and economic differences, even though the political situation has changed completely.

There are more than 550 Ramsar listed sites designated by European Contracting Parties, with about 450 of these being in Western Europe. However, the larger number of sites in Western Europe should be contrasted with the much larger average size of Eastern European sites, reflecting the generally greater extent of wetland loss and fragmentation in the Western European region.

Europe's long history of settlement, permanent agriculture and industrialization has wrought huge changes on the natural ecosystems of the region and upon the species of flora and fauna which are an integral part of them. Whilst it can be argued that the activities of people gradually increased the biodiversity of Europe over the course of many centuries, through the creation of an intricate, artificial mosaic of habitats, the more recent past has seen a reversal in that trend. Wetlands have come under particular pressure, with the drainage of extensive lowland areas for agriculture and urban development, and the regulation of major river systems for power generation, water storage, navigation and artificial flood control. For example, up to 95% of Switzerland's original marshland has been drained and converted, whilst the Danube and Volga rivers - the two longest in Europe - have been transformed by the construction of numerous dams. In Greece, the construction of dams and drainage tunnels in the late 1940s and 1950s led to the disappearance of 60,000ha of wetlands and the partial drainage of a further 390,000ha. A recent study of 78 major wetlands in France has found that more than 85% of the sites had been significantly or extremely degraded during the period 1960 to 1990. In Poland, less than 10% of the country's once vast peat bogs remain intact, whilst in Bulgaria, of 200,000ha of wetlands at the start of the century, only 11,000 have survived. Increasingly in the 20th century, various forms of pollution (e.g. eutrophication, contamination with heavy metals and radioactive material, acidification, and salinization) threaten the quality of water in wetlands, whilst over-exploitation of groundwater resources in many areas places the very existence of important wetlands at risk.

In spite of the extensive loss and degradation of European wetlands highlighted above, many important wetlands (at international, national and local levels) remain, albeit many of them highly fragmented and much altered in comparison with their original condition. The present-day distribution of wetlands in Europe naturally reflects biogeographical controls such as climate, geology and soil types, but has also been determined by the political and economic differences which have divided the continent for much of the present century.

Taking biogeographical factors first, the variety of European wetlands ranges from coastal lagoons supplied by winter rains in the Mediterranean lowlands, to seasonally frozen Alpine lakes, and from the estuaries of the northwest Atlantic coast to the extensive peat bogs and forested wetlands of Fenno-Scandia and eastern Europe. Central Europe is characterized by lake and river floodplain systems, with seasonally inundated alluvial forests. The northwestern seaboard of the region enjoys the climatic amelioration offered by the North Atlantic Drift Current (or 'Gulf Stream'), whilst the continental climate of the east European steppe zone gives short, very hot summers and bitterly cold winters.

Turning to anthropogenic factors, wide differences can be seen between western Europe and central/eastern Europe and between northern and southern Europe. In general terms the concentration of economic wealth and highly developed industrialization in north and west Europe has seen the greatest loss, degradation and fragmentation of wetlands. Conversely, in central and eastern Europe, and in Fenno-Scandia, the lower degree of industrialization, urbanization and intensive agriculture means that far more extensive areas of natural or semi-natural wetlands remain. The recent political changes, however, and the further changes which are likely to result in the future - for example, the expansion of industrialized agriculture in the region - place the continued survival of many of these intact (or nearly intact) wetlands in doubt. In the south of Europe, the long history of occupation and often intensive use of Mediterranean wetlands place these areas under special stress, which in many recent years has been exacerbated by low winter rainfall.

In world terms, Europe has a rather small share of global biodiversity, with only about 15% of the total estimated number of animal and higher plant species in existence, reflecting the relatively harsh climatic conditions across most of the region. However, this rather modest diversity forms an important component of the whole, with its own intrinsic value. A typical European, nutrient-rich wetland system could be expected to support a range of simple plants (algae, mosses, etc.), flowering plants, invertebrates, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals. Of the animal groups, birds are perhaps the most obvious and best known - a point reflected in the case studies.

The biological productivity of European estuaries is remarkable in global terms, with the constant renewal of nutrients by tidal action supporting phenomenal densities of invertebrates, in turn supporting commercially important fisheries and millions of migratory waterbirds. The Atlantic and North Sea coasts are especially important, with the United Kingdom alone having 163 estuaries.

Like other regions, Europe supports species which are found nowhere else on Earth. Amongst endemic species found at European wetlands of international importance are the fish Barbus prespensis, found only at Lake Prespa in Greece. Because of the pressures on natural ecosystems in Europe, a very high proportion of species are considered to be under threat. This is certainly true of wetland species, which depend on habitats which have been highly fragmented and degraded (for example, around a quarter of all fish species and nearly one half of all amphibians in Europe are considered threatened). A recent BirdLife International study of population trends in European bird species concluded that a quarter of all declining species had been adversely affected by wetland drainage. The European Otter (Lutra lutra) has been extirpated from much of western and central Europe, whilst intensive agricultural practices mean that many wetland plants (e.g. certain species of orchids) are becoming more and more confined to nature reserves and other protected areas. In the Netherlands, it has been estimated that 30% of all species require a high water table. However, in many parts of the country, water tables have fallen substantially as a result of groundwater being extracted for use in industry and drinking water supply, and because of more efficient drainage and irrigation.

Wetlands in Europe, as elsewhere in the world, include highly productive systems, notably estuaries, which provide the plants and invertebrates which form the basis of complex food chains, in which human beings are often the 'top predator'. Wetlands in the region sustain major fisheries and shellfisheries, and provide grazing for livestock. In central and eastern Europe, wetlands continue to provide economically important plant products such as the Common Reed Phragmites australis and willow Salix spp. which are utilized by local communities.

Europe's wetlands also provide food, shelter and nesting or wintering grounds for millions of migratory birds which undertake seasonal migrations to and from other regions, including Africa, the Middle East, Greenland, Arctic Canada and Siberia. These include true water birds, such as ducks, as well as many other wetland-dependent species, such as Osprey Pandion haliaetus and a wide variety of small songbirds. Amongst the many wetlands which are ecologically linked with Europe in this way are two of the sites described in other chapters of this publication: Djoudj National Bird Park in Senegal, West Africa; and the Azraq Oasis in Jordan.

Finally, wetlands play an important role in recreation, be it of an informal kind, or part of the highly developed European tourism and leisure industries. Swimming, sailing, fishing, bird-watching, hiking and hunting are just some of the economically important activities which rely on maintaining a healthy wetland environment.

The case studies which follow introduce a snapshot of part of the biological diversity and productivity of European wetlands outlined above, as well as illustrating a range of factors which may lead to the loss or degradation of some of this diversity and productivity.

The Ebro Delta in northeast Spain illustrates the diversity of Mediterranean wetland types and species, and the importance of ensuring the conservation and wise use of sites which maintain the ranges of species which have disappeared elsewhere. However, the delta is under pressure from (amongst other factors) sediment starvation as a result of dam construction upstream, abstraction of river water leading to salinization and eutrophication, pollution by pesticide run-off from intensive agriculture, and tourism development.

The case study chosen to represent the situation in central Europe is the extensive transboundary lake (and other associated wetlands) shared by Austria, where the lake is known as Neusiedlersee, and Hungary, where the name Fertó is used. The site includes a diversity of wetland types, and supports an especially extensive area of reeds which, in turn, support important populations of nesting birds. International restoration measures are currently under way to counter the adverse impacts of the artificial lowering of the water table through past drainage and irrigation.

The extensive peatlands of northern and eastern Europe are represented by Teici and Pelecare Bogs in eastern Latvia. More than 600 higher plant species and 2,800 animal species (including over 2,500 invertebrates) have been identified at the site, which is composed of a mosaic of different wetland habitats. Factors which influence the site adversely include intensive forestry and drainage of surrounding land for agriculture.

The Norfolk and Suffolk Broads case study, from the United Kingdom, is an example of the rich biological diversity and productivity which has arisen in an essentially cultural landscape. The wetland habitats and species now found in the region are the result of centuries of manipulation by local communities for fuel production, wetland plant products, and extensive summer grazing. Maintenance of the area's biological value depends on the continuation of traditional management practices, combined with measures to restore damaged habitats and to counter eutrophication from sewage and agricultural run-off, as well as the effects of mass tourism, and, in the longer term, rising sea levels.

It would have been equally possible to choose many other combinations of case studies to reflect other aspects of the biological diversity and productivity of Europe's wetlands and the challenges which are faced in trying to maintain, and, where necessary, restore these values. For example, estuaries, major river systems, mountain wetlands and Arctic wetlands are not included.

The case studies selected all happen to feature wetlands which are protected areas. However, site protection measures - such as the designation and management of nature reserves - alone, will never succeed in maintaining the biological diversity and productivity of the region's wetlands. They may preserve the 'crown jewels' as living museums, but site-based measures can only be extended to a tiny minority of wetlands. Perhaps the most important task is to ensure that policies dealing specifically with wetlands are incorporated within the general environmental action plans and conservation strategies being drawn up at regional, national and supra-national (e.g. European Union) levels. Conservation and wise use of the vast majority of European wetlands has to be achieved through wider policies such as integrated planning and management for whole river basins, and adequate consideration of wetland issues by the agricultural, industrial and transportation sectors.

The Convention has a long history in Europe, having been initiated largely by European conservationists concerned by the rapid loss of wetlands habitat critical to the survival of migratory waterbirds. Nowadays, Ramsar plays a prominent role at many levels, both within particular states and internationally. Amongst the regional initiatives that the Convention participates in are the Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy established under the ministerial 'Environment for Europe' process, and the 'MedWet' initiative - supported largely by European Union funding - for the conservation and wise use of Mediterranean wetlands.

The Convention aims to maintain close working links with the many national, regional and international organizations - both governmental and non-governmental - active in Europe. Amongst these are the European Commission, Council of Europe, Barcelona Convention, Berne Convention, Bonn Convention (and related Agreements, especially the Agreement on African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds), and the regional and country offices of BirdLife International, IUCN-The World Conservation Union, Wetlands International, and World Wide Fund for Nature - WWF.

The Convention has been able to provide - or act as the conduit for - modest funding for wetland projects in countries of central and eastern Europe whose economies are in transition. From 1997 onwards, these states will also have access to the Ramsar Small Grants Fund mechanism; it is hoped that this will ensure ongoing practical assistance for wetland conservation and wise use in the region.

Note: In the European case studies, "Species of European Conservation Concern" refers to BirdLife International's classification of European birds according to their global and European status; it indicates here species with an unfavourable conservation status in Europe (i.e. those in categories 1,2 and 3).

Neusiedlersee is situated at the lowest point of the Little Hungarian Plain and is Europe's westernmost steppe lake. Because of this special situation in terms of biogeographic regions, the biodiversity of the area is characterized by a mosaic of different habitats such as the lake itself, numerous small, shallow alkaline lakes, wet meadows, reed-beds, saltmarsh-like inland vegetation, fen and grasslands. The lake covers an area of 320km2 whereas about 180km2 are covered with the Common Reed Phragmites australis. Until the mid-seventies there was a huge belt of macrophytes in front of the reed (mainly consisting of Fennel Pondweed Potamogeton pectinatus and Spiked Milfoil Myriophyllum spicatum) which disappeared after the introduction of the alien Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella. Right now the plants are slowly recovering due to the natural death of these fish.

Various attempts have been undertaken to document the internationally important situation of this wetland site. Under the Bern Convention the site was nominated as a Biogenetic Reserve under the auspices of the Council of Europe. In the framework of the Man and Biosphere Programme, Neusiedlersee was declared a Biosphere Reserve. In 1982 it was declared a Ramsar site and in 1992 a National Park; additionally at the moment it is also proposed as a World Heritage site.

The Ramsar site is shared between Austria and Hungary with the greater part, measuring 60,000ha, situated in Austria and the remaining 2,870ha in Hungary. Apart from the strikingly flat landscape which, however, contains diverse ecological units, one mainly thinks in terms of waterbirds when talking about Neusiedlersee. The reed belt, with a maximum width of 12km, holds breeding populations of Purple Heron Ardea purpurea (100 pairs), Spoonbill Platelea leucorodia (15 pairs), and Bittern Botaurus stellaris (200-300 pairs), which are considered Species of European Conservation Concern, as well as a number of other species (see Box 7).

The Seewinkel, east of the lake, is famous for its roosting migratory geese such as the Bean Goose Anser fabalis (up to 30,000), Greylag Goose Anser anser (up to 6,000) and White-fronted Goose Anser albifrons (up to 12,000). It is also noted for the waders breeding and roosting in and at the edge of the small lakes including approximately 100 breeding pairs of Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta, 20 pairs of Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus and 8 species of breeding gulls and terns. Thirty species of waders and 21 waterfowl species (geese excepted) are frequent migrants, and 13 waterfowl species and Greylag Geese breed regularly.

However, when talking about biodiversity the special situation of the vegetation must also be mentioned. Specialities not only for Austria but even for Europe can be found. Lepidium cartilagineum for instance covers an area of distribution as far as from the Ukrainian steppes to its western border at Neusiedlersee. Another rarity is Artemisia laciniata, a species of Central Asia which has its only proven locality in Europe at Neusiedlersee.

BOX 7: ADDITIONAL BIRD SPECIES BREEDING AT NEUSIEDLERSEE/FERTÓ
Great White Egret	Casmerodius albus	453 pairs
Moustached Warbler	Acrocephalus melanopogon	~ 9,000 pairs
Sedge Warbler	A. schoenobaenus	6,000 - 12,000 pairs
Reed Warbler	A. scirpaceus	30,000 - 60,000 pairs
Great Reed-Warbler	A. arundinaceus	8,000 pairs
Savi's Warbler	Locustella luscinioides	3,000 - 5,000 pairs
Bearded Tit	Panurus biarmicus	^>10,000 pairs
Water Rail	Rallus aquaticus	8,000 - 12,000 pairs
Little Crake	Porzana parva	4,000 - 6,000 pairs

After some glimpses of the jewels of the area some negative factors have to be mentioned. Due to so-called improvement and drainage measures, the water surface of the shallow lakes east of Neusiedlersee diminished from 3,615ha in 1855 to only 805ha in 1986. Also the typical 'puszta' pastures (dry grassland) were changed into arable land. The intensification of agricultural land-use led to extensive eutrophication, easily visible in terms of algal blooms and reed expansion (1,009ha in 1855 versus 3,016ha in 1993) as well as the occurrence of botulism in waterfowl (over 2,000 dead birds in 1982 and again 1983, although in 1992 only 641 carcasses were collected).

Furthermore, groundwater resources are used for irrigation purposes and even maize fields and vineyards are watered. Together with the effect of numerous drainage canals, the lowering of the groundwater level and the decline in salinity pose major threats. The drying out of large lakes and the disappearance altogether of some lakes due to the lack of water is a serious problem. Attempts are now being made to build sluices on the old canals in order to reduce the run-off speed of the water and to restore the water balance. On Neusiedlersee itself attempts have been made to raise the water level because of the effects of an artificial outflow which was built in 1910.

The creation of the transboundary National Park helps to promote wetland restoration and it is hoped that wise use of the whole Ramsar site can be achieved in the near future to maintain and manage the biodiversity and resources of the area.

The Teici Reserve is made up of the Teici and Pelecare Bogs, situated in the eastern part of Latvia within the regions of Madona, Jekabpils and Preili. The total area of the territory covers about 24,000ha, and it was designated as a Ramsar site on 5 April 1995. Both bogs are typical for Eastern Latvia. The Teici Bog has been a State Nature Reserve since 1982 while the much smaller Pelecare Bog has been a restricted Nature Area since 1977.

Most of the area (19,047ha) is included in the Teici State Nature Reserve - one of Latvia's five nature reserves and the largest. The area is administered and managed by the Nature Reserve which has a status of state institution and, since 1994, has been administered by the Ministry of Environmental Protection and Regional Development. The reserve is state owned and is included in the list of specially protected nature territories which cannot be privatized.

High altitude peatland and associated lake at the Teici Reserve, showing typical peatland vegetation. (Photo: Ugis Bergmanis)

About 80% of the Teici Reserve is covered by a high bog in an almost untransformed state. This is the largest high bog in Latvia and one of the largest in Europe. As a result of its characteristics this area is recognized as an IUCN Management Category I: a protected area managed mainly for science or wilderness protection. The reserve area is divided into two zones and in one of these, covering about 4,800ha (25%), no human activities other than those connected with research are permitted. In the remaining area of 14,247ha (75%) some management activities are permitted such as limited regulation of animal numbers and erection of artificial nest platforms for rare bird species; local inhabitants are allowed to continue their traditional activities of gathering firewood and wild berries.

An area of 20,000ha has been established as an outer protection zone around the territory designated as a Ramsar site. To prevent activities which could have a negative effect on the ecosystems of the reserve and to promote nature protection in the outer protected zone, small restricted areas around nest sites of Black Stork Ciconia nigra and rare raptor species have been established in this area. Hunting of Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix, Capercaillie Tetrao urogallus and geese as well as use of pesticides is prohibited. Treaties between private landowners and the Teici Reserve will be concluded in the future concerning the use of land and natural resources. In order to preserve ecosystems in their natural state some regulation of hydrological conditions in ditches flowing out from the bog as well as haymaking on natural meadows is planned.

The reserve is situated in the central part of the East Latvian lowlands, its absolute height lying between 97m and 113.4m. The Teici Bog is located in the mixed forest sub-zone of the temperate forest region. The area is not densely populated with an average density of 4 people per km2.

Most of the territory is covered with bogs (ca 15,257ha or 80%) and although around 95% of these are high bogs there are also small areas of transitional and low bogs in some places. Within the bog ecosystem, 206 bryophyte and 672 vascular plant species have been found. Lakes, morasses and pools of different size are typical of the bog and there are 18 lakes larger than 2ha covering a total area of about 380ha. Around the bogs, different sized forest stands cover an area of about 3,729ha (20%) and mineral soil islands and peninsulas inside the bog are also covered with forests. Some 97% of total forest area is natural forest. The dominant tree species are Scots Pine Pinus sylvestris (ca 51%), Silver Birch Betula pendula (ca 33%) and Norway Spruce Picea abies (ca 12%) mixed with Aspen Populus tremula and also Common Alder Alnus glutinosa, Common Ash Fraxinus excelsior and Small-leaved Lime Tilia cordata. These are mainly middle-aged stands. Most widespread are the forests on drained peat soils, dry mineral soils and wet peat soils although there are small areas of forest growing on wet and drained mineral soils.

The diversity of habitats accounts for the considerable diversity of the fauna - 2,837 animal species have been found there. Most of them are invertebrates (2,596 species) with arthropoda the best investigated group (2,553 species). Vertebrates are represented by 41 species of mammals and 186 species of birds. The list of mammal species found here includes several species considered threatened in much of Europe such as the Beaver Castor fiber, Lynx Lynx lynx, Grey Wolf Canis lupus, Brown Bear Ursus arctos and Otter Lutra lutra. Of the bird species which have either been found nesting or are thought to be nesting, 15 are considered Species of Europe Conservation Concern, including: Black- throated Diver Gavia arctica (2-3 pairs); Black Stork Ciconia nigra (3-5 pairs); Short-toed Eagle Circaetus gallicus (1 pair); Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina (3.5 pairs per 100 km2); Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos (one probable breeding pair); Peregrine Falco peregrinus (one probable breeding pair); Black Grouse Tetrao tetrix (common breeding species); Crane Grus grus (15-32 pairs); Black- tailed Godwit Limosa limosa (8-16 pairs); Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola (48-97 pairs); Nightjar Caprimulgus europaeus (breeding); Three-toed Woodpecker Picoides tridactylus (breeding); Green Woodpecker Picus viridis (breeding); Grey-headed Woodpecker Picus canus (breeding); Osprey Pandion haliaetus (1-2 pairs). Other important breeding species are listed in Box 8.

BOX 8: ADDITIONAL IMPORTANT BIRD SPECIES BREEDING AT TEICI
Montagu's Harrier	Circus pygargus	1-4 pairs
Merlin	Falco columbarius	up to 5 pairs
Willow Grouse	Lagopus lagopus	some pairs probable
Capercaillie	Tetrao urogallus	3 leks with ca 30 males
Golden Plover	Pluvialis apricaria	21-78 pairs
Whimbrel	Numenius phaeopus	2-21 pairs
Curlew	Numenius arquata	5-13 pairs
Ruff	Philomachus pugnax	5-20 pairs
Pygmy Owl	Glaucidium passerinum	1.1 territories per 100km2
Tengmalm's Owl	Aegolius funereus	7.4 territorial males per 100km2
Ural Owl	Strix uralensis	2.5 territories per 100km2
White-backed Woodpecker	Dendrocopus leucotos	breeding
Black Woodpecker	Dryocopus martius	breeding

The Teici Bog and surroundings are also extremely important as stop-over and feeding sites for passage geese and cranes. During the autumn migration period about 1,200 Cranes, 4,000 White-fronted Geese Anser albifrons and 4,000 Bean Geese Anser fabalis have been observed simultaneously.

Covering an area of 4,546ha, this bog is located to the south of the Teici Bog. A rather high diversity of habitats is also typical for this bog-forest complex. Although this territory has not been so well investigated it seems a very important site for passage Cranes and geese as well as for the protection of bird species typical of bogs.

The peripheral part of the Teici Bog is badly affected by the development of surrounding agricultural lands as well as ditches flowing out from the bog. Most affected are moist forest stands where mineralization of their peat soils has transformed growth conditions of the forests; a rather similar situation has been observed on the areas surrounding the Pelecare Bog. As the laws relating to the reserve area do not cover these territories, the forests around the bog are intensively utilized thus altering the habitat and the diversity of species.

By Albert Martinez Vilalta, Parc Natural del Delta de L'Ebre, Spain, and Francesc Giró, Department of the Environment of the Generalitat of Catalonia, Spain

The Ebro Delta is one of the major river deltas of the Mediterranean Basin. It covers an area of 320km2 and consists of a typical delta platform extending 30km into the Mediterranean. The main surface of the delta is covered by agricultural land, and most natural areas are located along the edges, behind large natural beaches and sand dunes. Two sandy lobes extend from the main delta enclosing large bays of shallow water where shellfish production is very high. Natural habitats include also coastal lagoons, salt and freshwater marshes, salt pans, freshwater wells and small remnants of riparian forests. The Ebro Delta is considered of European importance for its saltmarsh and aquatic vegetation and for its waterbirds, with 40,000 breeding couples and more than 180,000 wintering birds. It is also an important area for fisheries in the western Mediterranean.

Natural water wells at the Ebro Delta - an interesting freshwater habitat typical of Spanish Mediterranean coastal plains close to karstic countryside where underground water overflows. (Photo: Anna Motis)

At present, the main remaining natural areas covering 7,736ha are protected as a Natural Park and a further 3,794ha are included in the Catalonian Plan of Areas of Natural Interest (PEIN). The Ebro Delta is a Ramsar site and also an Important Bird Area, as identified by BirdLife International. It is also being considered for inclusion in the European Union's Natura 2000 Network of important conservation sites. Within the park, there are 4,400ha where hunting is strictly forbidden and fishing is not permitted in a 900ha sector. The PEIN provides basic protection to some other areas including a buffer zone of rice fields around lagoons. Almost all of the coastal areas are public land while nearly half of the lagoons and marshes are private property. A Zone Plan is being developed to reduce the impact of agriculture in aquatic ecosystems and to guarantee the continuity of rice production in the delta.

Because the Ebro Delta is heavily populated compared to other Mediterranean wetlands, the area is intensively utilized. There are very few areas where the natural resources are not exploited. In most of the delta, agriculture is the main activity and this includes intensive rice production covering 21,500ha and in some areas other crops such as lettuce, tomato, and melon. In a couple of relatively small areas, there is some extensive cattle ranching allowing the development of interesting habitats. Fishing is very important both in the lagoons, river and surrounding sea. Shellfish production is also remarkable in the enclosed bays of La Banya and El Fangar. Aquaculture is becoming important in some areas including both extensively and intensively managed systems. Waterfowl hunting is very popular in the area with over 5,000 hunters. Finally, tourism development, concentrated at the moment in the resorts of Riumar and Eucaliptus, is likely to spread to other areas.

The Ebro Delta is a heavily populated area with over 50,000 inhabitants. This, together with the lack of an overall integrated management plan for the whole area, creates a complex situation. The main threats are as follows:

Most of the typical Mediterranean wetland habitats are present in the Ebro Delta except for a few types such as riparian forest and certain freshwater temporal marshes. As far as the flora is concerned, the Ebro Delta is a unique site in the Iberian Mediterranean coast. It is an area of great biogeographical interest with many species having their northernmost or southernmost distribution limits (e.g. Honeysuckle Lonicera biflora; Tamarisk Tamarix boveana, Common Alder Alnus glutinosa). There are also many rare species in aquatic habitats such as Pepperwort Marsilea quadrifolia, White Water-lily Nymphaea alba, and the Lesser Naiad Najas minor, while in sandy and saline soils other rarities can be found (e.g. Limoniastrum monopetalum, Loefingia hispanica, Zygophyllum album, Orobanche cernua, and 10 different species of the sea lavender genus Limonium).

The delta is well known for its animal life. Among invertebrates, molluscs are particularly rich with endemic snails of the genus Melanopsis and the very rare Margaritifera auricularia. There are important populations of endemic fishes such as the threatened Aphanius iberus (IUCN Red List, 1994) and the Valencia Toothcarp Valencia hispanica. There are also some rare reptiles such as the European Pond Terrapin Emys orbicularis, the Spanish Terrapin Mauremys leprosa and two globally threatened species, Herman's Tortoise Testudo hermanni and the Loggerhead Caretta caretta (IUCN Red List, 1994). The Loggerhead has occasionally nested on the beaches.

The delta is particularly important for aquatic birds and especially for its nesting populations of gulls and terns. Outstanding is the world's biggest colony of 10,300 pairs of Audouin's Gull, Larus audouinii, a threatened species (IUCN Red List, 1994). Other species nesting in large numbers in the area are shown in Box 9.

BOX 9: SPECIES OF WATERFOWL NESTING IN SIGNIFICANT NUMBERS IN THE AREA
Slender-billed Gull	Larus genei	600 pairs
Gull-billed Tern*	Sterna nilotica	300 pairs
Sandwich Tern*	Sterna sandvicensis	1,200 pairs
Common Tern	Sterna hirundo	5,500 pairs
Little Tern*	Sterna albifrons	650 pairs
Whiskered Tern*	Chlydonias hybridus	1,500 pairs
Black-winged Stilt	Himantopus himantopus	5,000 pairs
Avocet*	Recurvirostra avosetta	550 pairs
Collared Pratincole*	Glareola pratincola	80 pairs
Kentish Plover*	Charadrius alexandrinus	1,600 pairs
Bittern*	Botaurus stellaris	2-4 pairs
Little Bittern*	Ixobrychus minutus	>700 pairs
Little Egret	Egretta garzetta	1,000 pairs
Cattle Egret	Bubulcus ibis	4,000 pairs
Purple Heron*	Ardea purpurea	500 pairs
Squacco Heron*	Ardeola ralloides	450 pairs
Greater Flamingo*	Phoenicopterus ruber	300-1,300 fledgings (breeding since 1992)
Night Heron*	Nycticorax nycticorax	160 pairs
(Those marked * are considered Species of European Conservation Concern)

The delta is also a very important resting, moulting and feeding area for thousands of migratory birds. In the autumn, up to 20,000 herons of different species have been seen, while in the winter peak counts, 100,000 ducks, 20,000 coot and over 30,000 waders are present.

The Broads is an area where marshes, fens, rivers and lakes intertwine to form a wetland unrivalled elsewhere in Britain. These landscapes have been fashioned by patterns of living and working stretching back over many centuries. In particular the excavation of peat for fuel and the harvest of reed, sedge and marsh hay from the undrained peatlands in the upper and middle valleys have created a great diversity of habitats. The major peat excavations of medieval times have led to the creation of 40 shallow lakes or 'broads', some of which were subsequently connected to the rivers. The river system which is tidal and leads by an estuary to the North Sea, has historically been important for the transport of local goods but in recent decades it has supported a thriving tourist industry based around pleasure boating. Several hundred years ago the majority of the land was reclaimed from the estuary and rivers in the lower valleys. These vast flatlands are maintained by pump drainage and continue to be highly prized summer pastures for cattle and sheep.

The area that receives national protection under the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads Act of 1988 is approximately 303km2 and includes the floodplains and tributaries of three major rivers (the Bure, Yare and Waveney). The Broads Authority, which was established in 1989 to coordinate the management of the area, has duties for nature conservation, public enjoyment and navigation and is the authority responsible for planning. The area includes 27 Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs) designated under UK legislation. Together these SSSIs make up approximately 20% of the Broads area. They have recently been made into a single European Union Special Protection Area and a Ramsar site. Prior to this, two separate, smaller Ramsar sites had existed in the Thurne and Bure valleys since 1976. The new designations include many of the freshwater broads, the majority of the calcareous fens and the areas of drained marshland that support the best examples of aquatic communities in the drainage ditches. Most of this area has also been recommended by English Nature for designation as a Special Area for Conservation under the European Union Habitats Directive. Outside of these statutory designations there are numerous nature reserves.

The Broads support the largest expanse of species-rich calcareous fen in the UK. Approximately 2,500ha remains as 'open' fen, clear of woodland and a further 3,000ha is carr woodland, the most extensive of its type in the UK. The varied hydrology of the fens and the complex history of exploitation for peat, reed, sedge and marsh hay has led to great habitat heterogeneity. There are 53 plant communities in the open fen and over 250 different plant species including the rare Fen Orchid, Liparis loeselii. The fen communities include swamp and sedge beds dominated by Great Fen Sedge Cladium mariscus, tall herb fen, and very wet mires with Sphagnum mosses. The fens are also nationally important for birds such as the Bittern Botaurus stellaris, a Species of European Conservation Concern, and the Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus and for a large number of invertebrates that are highly specialized to survive in the fen environment.

Almost 40% of the Broads area is drained marshland. These areas are valued for the extensive ditch network which supports a range of aquatic communities including freshwater and brackish types. The marshes are also nationally important for breeding waders such as Snipe Gallinago gallinago and wintering birds such as the Bean Goose Anser fabalis. Virtually all of the marshland management is supported by the European Union's Environmentally Sensitive Area Scheme (ESA) which enables the traditional practice of extensive summer grazing to continue to the benefit of wildlife and landscape conservation.

The Broads Authority and English Nature have developed an overall resource profile for the Broads 'Natural Area' which guides the habitat strategies. Appropriate water management is fundamental to all aspects of conservation in the Broads. The three central elements of water management in the Broads are water resources, water quality and flood defence. A major challenge has been to halt and reverse the process of eutrophication in the rivers and broads. Since the middle of this century nutrient enrichment caused by sewage effluent and agricultural run-off has resulted in the near total loss of aquatic life in the rivers and the connected broads. A programme of installation of phosphorus removal plants is well underway at the key sewage treatment works affecting the area. Fifteen years of research and experimental management has resulted in the development of a set of practical techniques which can together trigger the recovery of aquatic life. Considerable investment is now being put into the restoration of some of the major broads. A few broads which have remained isolated from the pollution sources still support some of the most important examples of aquatic plant communities in the UK including Stonewort Chara sp. and Holly-leaved Naiad Najas marina.

The Broads is a fragile wetland with intense visitor pressure in the summer. (Photo: David Burton)

The majority of the Broads waterways are open to public navigation (approximately 200km) and congestion is a problem in the summer months. There are also conflicts with the erosion of riverside vegetation due to boat wash. The Broads Authority controls boat speed and can limit the disturbance of flora and fauna by boats through the use of zoning arrangements in sensitive areas. The development of less damaging forms of boating is also being encouraged.

The key challenges in the conservation of the fens are the maintenance of the groundwater supply, the prevention of excessive flooding with nutrient rich and brackish water and the restoration of open fen in the neglected areas which have been invaded by willow scrub Salix spp. The Broads Authority and English Nature are working together with landowners to devise an overall management strategy for the whole peatland area. An important part of this strategy is to encourage the commercial harvest of reed and sedge dominated communities for thatching. New commercial uses are being developed for fen products that are not suitable for thatching, including harvest for biofuel and the reintroduction of extensive grazing systems.

The whole of the drained marshland is threatened by saltwater flooding due to the deterioration of river walls, increasing storminess in the North Sea and sea level rise. A major flood alleviation strategy is being devised by the National Rivers Authority to safeguard all the interests of the Broads area for the long term. The ESA scheme for the Broads is being further developed to meet the nature conservation objectives for marsh ditches and bird life.

The Ramsar Convention is an intergovernmental treaty, and in setting the northern and southern limits for the region, strict biogeographical considerations have been waived in favour of political reality. Thus, for Ramsar, the Neotropical Region is considered to include all countries and their territories in South and Central America and the Caribbean.

From a biogeographical standpoint the Everglades (USA) should be considered as part of the Neotropics, as should the Mexican territory along the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific coast, including a portion of Baja California. On the other hand, the central montane areas of Guatemala and Honduras would be excluded, becoming part of the Nearctic, i.e. North America, while Tierra del Fuego (Argentina and Chile) would be included in Antarctica.

In a region over 10,000km long and reaching almost 7,000m above sea level, a great diversity of ecosystems and of flora and fauna can be found. Although some areas as well as certain groups of plants and animals have been studied thoroughly, the Neotropics remain rather poorly known to science. In spite of this, it is estimated that some 30% of all vascular plants in the world (estimated to be around 400,000 species) can be found in the Neotropics, of which, 80,000 are endemic to it. Of a world total of some 175 families of birds - which include approximately 8,600 species - 86 are present in the Neotropics and 31 are endemic to it. In terms of its mammals, 25% of the 1,100 world species are found in this region.

Within this richness, wetland ecosystems are equally varied, both in terms of species diversity and abundance. The range is impressive: from the tropical coral reefs of the Caribbean, to the mangroves and marshes of the Pacific coast of Central America and the deltas of the Orinoco and the Amazon rivers, to the lakes and saltmarshes of the snow-dominated Puna or Altiplano, the geysers of the Andes in central western Argentina and the fjordland of southern Chile.

The wide altitudinal range in the region is reflected in the extreme differences between wetlands, their values and the benefits they can provide. The coastal wetlands of Belize, Guatemala and Honduras, which include mangrove swamps, seagrass beds and coral reefs, are an example of the richest wetland ecosystems in terms of number of species. A detailed description of coral reefs is provided in Case Study 3 by Sue Wells. On the other hand, Lake Titicaca (830,000ha), is the highest navigable lake in the world at 3,800m above sea level, and it supports important populations of most of the waterbird species which are associated with the high Andes as well as a rich and diverse endemic fish fauna, including 14 species of Orestias.

A spectacular component of wetland biodiversity in the Neotropics as a region, is the shorebird migration, occurring twice each year (southward around August and northward around February). Millions of individuals of some 40 species travel from their breeding grounds in northern North America along different flyways in search of the rich and highly productive wetlands of the south which will provide them with abundant food during the non-breeding periods of their life cycles. Large numbers concentrate in wetlands along the coast of the Gulf of Panama, the Pacific coast of Colombia and Peru, and along the Atlantic coasts of Surinam and Brazil. Some travel still further south, such as the Red Knot Calidris canutus and the Hudsonian Godwit Limosa haemastica, and reach the shores of Tierra del Fuego, where a Ramsar site has recently been declared to protect Bah’a San Sebastián. Roberto Schlatter explores the diversity of Tierra del Fuego in Case Study 2. Other Ramsar sites of special relevance for the conservation of shorebirds include Paracas (Peru), Lagoa do Peixe (Brazil), Coppenamemonding (Surinam) and Laguna Pozuelos (Argentina). The impressive gatherings of migratory shorebirds are testimony to the richness of the wetlands they use and they are important indicator species of the high productivity found there.

The high productivity of the wetlands results in ecosystems which are not only attractive to shorebirds but also have great potential as fish nursery sites and fishing grounds. This has been of great importance to local and regional economies, past and present. Many human cultures developed along the shores of wetlands in the Neotropical Region, as they did in other parts of the world, and benefited from their plants and animals, respected them and in many cases worshipped the gods that lived in them. Throughout the continent, from Alaska to Tierra del Fuego, pre-colonial cultures followed a similar pattern of use of the natural resources, very close to what we know call 'wise use' or 'sustainable use'.

Little is known about the Carib indians who inhabited the Caribbean islands; all Carib cultures were eliminated and in their place appeared the 'creole mestizo', descendants of mixed blood between Carib indians, blacks and whites. The Kuna and Emberá live in houses built on stilts along the Caribbean and Pacific coasts of Panama and Colombia, in the area known as the 'Tapón del Darién' (Darién Bottleneck). The Ashanincas who live between the Ene and Tambo rivers in Brazil, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela, and the Aguarunas in the Marañón river area in Peru, for example, still use the natural resources like their ancestors, in a rotational manner, but are themselves victims of the excessive human exploitation of both forest and wetland natural resources going on in the Amazon today. The Aymara and Quechua, who live in the heights of the Puna, practised rotating agriculture and farming, while the Uros are still mainly fishermen, living in houses built on rafts made of the Totora Reed Schoenoplectus totora, in Lake Titicaca. This wetland was a 'cultural refuge' area in times when these communities were forced to contract because of invasion and aggression from other cultures.

Wetlands in this region provide resources and perform functions of great value to human beings. In an area with 13 independent countries and some 3,000 islands, islets or cays, the Caribbean is constantly stricken by tropical storms and hurricanes. Here, coastal wetlands (including mangrove swamps, coastal marshes, seagrass beds and coral reefs) play an important role in mitigating the negative impact of these natural phenomena. Two of the largest cities in the region, Buenos Aires and Sao Paulo have developed along the Cuenca del Plata, which provides not only water for human use and industry, but abundant fisheries and wildlife resources and transportation. Because of the low gradient of the land the marshes along the rivers function as water reservoirs, protecting these cities, built (unwisely) along the shores of the rivers, from the negative effects of floods. Wetlands perform another quite different function in Costa Rica: on both Caribbean and Pacific coasts, wetlands here attract thousands of tourists each year who come to watch colonies of nesting waterbirds and the arrival of thousands of turtles which lay their eggs in the intertidal zones of their beaches.

Among the many natural resources exploited by man which are generated by wetlands in the Neotropics, are the Cuban Crocodile Crocodylus rhombifer in the Ciénaga de Zapata (Cuba) and the Capybara Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris in the Llanos of Venezuela, which have been sustainably harvested for several decades now. In contrast, mangrove trees provide timber and tannins throughout their distribution areas, but have seldom been harvested in a sustainable way.

It is important to emphasize that human exploitation of wetlands is not necessarily synonymous with loss of biodiversity: sustainable practices over the centuries have maintained wetland biodiversity. One interesting study on use of wetlands, related in case study 5, documents the role of grazing cattle in maintaining the biodiversity of the seasonal marsh at Palo Verde: removal of grazing cattle resulted in significant losses in biodiversity.

From a global perspective, it could be said that many South American wetlands are still in fairly good condition, in contrast with the highly modified wetlands of Central America and the intensively exploited or altered ones in the Caribbean.

Caribbean wetlands are probably some of the least known, least protected and most threatened wetland types. Threats to the integrity of these fragile wetland ecosystems include: use of mangrove trees for charcoal and tanning; waste-dumping; land reclamation and conversion to shrimp ponds; overfishing; and uncontrolled and inappropriate tourism activities around coral reefs. Excessive erosion, sedimentation, pollution and human disturbance are the result. In addition, coral reefs have been going through a bleaching process for a number of years in the Caribbean, which might be related to the increase of the sea-water temperature. Recent studies indicate that, in some areas, as much as 40% of coral reef cover has been lost due to bleaching and to the negative effects of human activities.

In spite of the many functions performed by these coastal wetlands such as storm and flood mitigation, retention of nutrients, shoreline stabilization, and tourism, and the many products generated such as forestry and wildlife resources, and fisheries, few wetlands in the Caribbean have any sort of protection, let alone management plans within the context of the wise use of water and wetland resources.

The narrow strip of land between South and North America, which constitutes Central America, is divided by its central range of mountains and, although the wetlands of the Pacific and Atlantic slopes have quite distinctive features, they experience similar problems. Wetlands on both sides still support a wide range of uses by local communities, but war in the past decades, deforestation in hills and mountains, unwise agricultural practices including uncontrolled use of dangerous agrochemicals, reclamation of wetlands for agriculture (mainly rice, banana and sugar cane) and other farming activities, are some of the major threats to which these wetlands are exposed. In spite (or because) of the small land surface on which they are found, these wetlands are unique and of great value. Human population - mainly settled in the central highlands - was relatively stable until recent times, and lately, with population growth on the increase, peace settled in the region, and a relative economic stability, most Central American countries are looking at tourism as a new source of income to boost their economies. But tourism, if not strictly controlled and regulated, could damage or even destroy the resource upon which it depends.

South American wetlands share most of the problems with Central America and the Caribbean. However, in a thinly populated continent (where most humans are concentrated in a few, very large cities), but where countries have enormous foreign debts, governments are trying to attract large financial investments and develop liberal economic policies, sometimes putting development and conservation into serious conflict. In most cases development policies do not take wise use of resources into account, and in a continent where many civilizations have used natural resources in a sustainable way for centuries, megaprojects are becoming the major threat to wetlands. A few examples illustrate this: the Yaciretá and Itaipú megadams on the Paraná River have changed the waterflow regime downstream, fish migration has been affected and fish species originally separated geographically are now mixing; the Hidrovía proposal, if carried out, would involve a modification of the Paraguay River to make it navigable upstream at a level where the Pantanal would be altered; the wetlands of the Darién (between Colombia and Panama) will be threatened if the Panamerican highway is constructed; Laguna Colorada in the Puna of Bolivia, one of the most fragile ecosystems of the world, is threatened by a geothermal project if environmental considerations are not taken into account.

Strong efforts are being made by Neotropical countries to implement their obligations under the Ramsar Convention. However, lack of funding for environmental matters and a general lack of political decision, are making progress slow in most cases. In spite of this, both governmental institutions and NGOs are achieving important results: many countries in the Neotropical Region are developing National Wetland Policies or Strategies in an effort to improve the existing legislation, and Environmental Impact Assessments are already incorporated in the legislation of several countries. A number of National Wetland Committees have been organized to guarantee the participation of all sectors of society (governmental, NGOs and private) on wetland issues and most countries in South and Central America (14 out of 19) have already become Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention, a clear sign that the will to change things exists. However, with only 1 Contracting Party out of 13 Caribbean countries, strenuous efforts will be made in the next few years to recruit new members in this part of the region.

Much effort is being directed towards training and capacity building, with local and foreign funding. Many universities, institutes and technical schools are providing degree programmes as well as workshops on wildlife and natural resource management and some have started specific curricula on wetland conservation and wise use.

Management plans are being prepared and implemented at a slow but steady rate. Basic research is badly needed, especially applied research on topics such as harvesting of wildlife and forestry resources. Implementation of management plans is probably the most critical problem when the good will and interest exist but not the economic capacity to carry them out. Some countries, however, have found an alternative solution with governments arranging for NGOs and/or local associations to be responsible for the management of protected wetland sites.

Much remains to be done in wetland conservation and wise use in the Neotropical Region. For this, the highest levels of political and economic decision making must be reached. Environmental agencies within governments, NGOs, universities, as well as indigenous people and local communities are playing an ever increasing role in making this change possible. This is a continent where there is still time to secure natural resources for the benefit of future generations as long as there is a commitment to learn from each others failures and successes.

At an altitude of 3,500 - 4,000m, La Puna or the High Andean Plateau of the Central Andes, is shared by Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Peru. It is a cold, desert region with intense solar radiation and strong winds which cause extreme temperature variations. There is a dry winter season and average annual temperature and rainfall do not exceed 10°C and 500mm per year respectively.

Three large units can be distinguished altitudinally in La Puna: prepuna, Puna in the strict sense and the high Andean region. The prepuna is dominated by small sparse woods of the column-like cactus 'Cardón' Trichocereus sp. and the leguminous tree 'Churqui' Prosopis ferox. La Puna is characterized by scrub steppes of grasses and hard-leaf 'Tola' Parastrephia sp. and scattered Polylepis sp.'Queñoa' forests. In contrast, the high Andean region has largely exposed rocky soils with grasses and cushion plants which are adapted to the dry conditions here.

Many of the rivers flowing to tropical and subtropical forest regions have their sources in these areas, but others form endorreic watersheds (i.e., with no exit to the sea) ending in lakes and 'salares' or salt basins of different sizes. The water volume of rivers and associated lakes varies according to season, with rains and snow melt occurring between October and March (summer). Some lakes are shallow, containing saline and hypersaline water with plankton made up mostly of diatoms. Other deeper and only slightly saline wetlands have abundant submerged vegetation and zooplankton rich in small crustaceans. During the dry season, the natural shrinkage of these wetlands exposes a cover of macrophytes and algae called 'colcha' on which domestic animals feed.

High altitude peatlands or 'bofedales' are found in some areas. Flooded by surface water or by the upwelling of underground fresh water, their vegetation is compact and cushion-like, with grasses, rushes and sedges which remain green almost all year. Behaving rather like gigantic sponges which slowly set water free in the dry season, these areas are very important sources of food for wild and domestic herbivores and they also serve as water reservoirs.

James's Flamingo, an endemic species, feeding at Vilama Lake. (Photo: Sandra Caziani)

The threatened Vicuña Vicugna vicugna (IUCN Red List, 1994) and the Puna Rhea Pterocnemia pennata, which is seen in family groups, graze on the steppes and 'bofedales'. It is also common to observe Andean Condor Vultur gryphus feeding on dead llamas. Yet in the middle of this desert landscape, the greatest explosion of life is without a doubt associated with the lakes and 'salares'; the great variety and number of birds, many of them endemic to La Puna, is particularly striking. On the saline lakes, thousands of the endemic James' and Andean Flamingos Phoenicopterus jamesi [note: many authorities record this genus as Pheonicoparrus] and P. andinus can be seen in the water, filtering micro-organisms with their specially adapted bills. They nest in colonies and lay a single egg in nests of mud and gravel. It is common to find large concentrations of Wilson's Phalarope Steganopus tricolor feeding near the flamingos. Hundreds of thousands of individuals of this small species migrate every year to the northern regions of North America where they breed. Chilean Flamingo Phoenicopterus chilensis is also found in these wetlands, usually together with Horned and Giant Coot Fulica cornuta and F. gigantea which feed on the same species of plants they use for building their nests. The latter species is very local and can be found in significant numbers in some of these wetlands, such as Laguna Pululos (Argentina), Lago Me–ique and Lago Miscanti (Chile), Laguna Colorada and Laguna Pelada (Bolivia). Lakes with submerged vegetation support large numbers of waterfowl including Puna Teal Anas puna, Crested Duck, Anas specularoides, Ferruginous Ruddy Duck Oxyura jamaicensis ferruginea and Andean Goose Chloephaga melanoptera.

A cultural richness derived from a combination of indian and hispanic elements is typical of this region, as are the houses built of 'adobe'. During the Inca period, human population here was high compared with the sparsely distributed population of today. Extensive farming (camelids and sheep) and mining are now the main activities and although potatoes, corn, and other crops are grown in some areas, it is on a much smaller scale than in prehispanic times; the terraces and irrigation systems used in the past can still be found and in some cases efforts are being made to restore them.

The Spanish invasion dramatically changed the social and trade systems, transforming sedentary farmers into semi-nomadic shepherds and introducing domestic sheep and goats to the llama ranches. Shepherds build 'pircas' (a rock enclosure forming a paddock or corral where pastures are managed) around 'bofedales', to manage the use of these rich pastures by livestock, and these paddocks can be seen scattered throughout the landscape.

At present, animal grazing is associated with the wetland cycle as animals are moved to higher or lower areas to take advantage of the seasonal changes in vegetation growth. For example, the 'colchas' might be used during the winter while the 'bofedales' in higher areas are used in the summer. Unfortunately, little is being done to promote sustainable farming among the inhabitants of the Puna, and overgrazing is contributing to excessive erosion in some areas, especially around wetlands.

Trees and bushes in La Puna continue to be used for fuel in homes and mines, and as material for building enclosures and houses. The light and beautiful wood of the 'cardones' is ideal for furniture and handicrafts. However, the growth of these woody plants is very slow and the loss of vegetation cover due to both cutting and overgrazing increases the erosion of the poorly developed, fragile soil which prevails here.

Severe droughts lasting several years are frequent and cause the disappearance of some of the wetlands and the shrinkage of others. In addition to this natural process, wetlands are facing other threats: siltation, drainage and pollution of the water. Siltation is the result of the accumulation of sediments carried by the water as part of natural processes and the loss of soil due to human activities (e.g. loss of vegetation cover through firewood collection and overgrazing). Mining and salt extraction (sulphates, borates and others) may contribute to wetland pollution or the loss of wetlands as large amounts of water are used to process the minerals.

Plants and animals are extremely well adapted to the harsh weather conditions found here, and therefore any modification of the ecological characteristics of their fragile environment will mean an almost certain threat to their survival. Most of these negative processes could also adversely affect the rainfall cycle and perhaps reduce the agricultural productivity of the area.

Important wetlands have been or are being designated as Ramsar sites: the Laguna Colorada (Bolivia); the Salar de Surire National Nature Monument and the Lauca National Park (Chile); and the Laguna de Pozuelos National Nature Monument (Ramsar Site and Biosphere Reserve) and Lagunas Vilama and Pululos (Argentina). This is a very important step towards the protection of these rich wetlands since their conservation in the long term depends on the wise use of resources in the basins, including the development of both sustainable farming techniques and alternative means of production for the population in the area.

Located on the southern tip of South America, Tierra del Fuego extends over 35,000km2 including Isla Grande as well as islands and archipelagos to the south of the Strait of Magellan. The innumerable intermittent columns of smoke and fire which early explorers sighted along the coast gave the area its name, Tierra del Fuego, Land of Fire. The first signs of human life in the region go back to approximately 10,000 B.C. Several indigenous peoples, shared this remote corner of the world:

The island is marine in origin from the Tertiary period with a postglacial topography. The layer of volcanic ash and organic soils covering the bedrock measures only 30cm in depth at maximum, resulting in fragile soil conditions. The northern part of the Isla Grande is cold and dry (less than 200mm rainfall annually) and is typically temperate South American grassland with the dominant grasses Festuca gracillina and Chiliotrichium diffusum. A chain of mountains with deciduous Lenga Nothofagus pumilo forests is located to the west and south. Moving further west and south again, there is a rainy zone with perennial subantarctic rain forests where the dominant tree species are Magellan 'Coigue' Nothofagus betuloides, along with 'Canelo' Drimys winteri and Magellan 'Maitén' Maytenus magellanica which are less abundant. In the highlands 'Ñirre' Nothofagus antarctica is the dominant species. With rainfall exceeding 7,000 mm per year on occasions, these sometimes form stunted forests.

Tierra del Fuego has varied and abundant wetlands. The largest catchment area on the island is that of the Río Grande which covers 8,821km2. Its sources of water are Lago Deseado through Río Turba, and Lago Blanco through Río Grande. Inland wetlands include lakes, lagoons and peatlands, and the most important concentration of wetlands is located between San Sebastián (Argentina) and Inœtil (Chile) bays in the northern part of Isla Grande. The largest lake, Lake Fagano or Cami, however, is found towards the southern part of Isla Grande.

Along the coast and in the marine sectors, there are large sandy and stony beaches, numerous fjords, inlets and bays with wetlands which are highly variable in terms of salinity, and with luxuriant algae and peatlands surrounding them. Islands and fjords particularly in the exposed sector possess a large concentration and diversity of marine bird species.

Sphagnum peatlands, dominated by Sphagnum magellanicum, are the most extensive wetlands. Peatlands cover approximately one third of the deciduous and perennial forest area and they are essential in maintaining and regulating the drainage of groundwater which originates from rain and melting ice. This is a wetland type of great importance because of its fragility. It is also of importance to local people as it is used as a source of fuel.

A typical landscape in the transitional zone between rain and deciduous forest near Seno Almirantazgo, at 300m above sea level in the Rio Cóndor watershed, Tierra del Fuego. In the foreground is Sphagnum peatland and Nirre forest with some Coigue and Lenga trees. (Photo: R. P. Schlatter).

The richest wetlands in terms of both biomass and number of species (particularly invertebrates and algae) are the coastal wetlands, especially bays and estuaries which abound with bird species such as the Flightless Steamer Duck Tachyeres pteneres which feeds on molluscs along the shore; the Kelp Goose Chloephaga hybrida which feeds on the extensive Kelp beds; the Southern Giant Petrel Macronectes giganteus which lives at sea but comes ashore to feed on dead whales and other carrion. The Magellanic Penguin Spheniscus magellanicus nests on the islands of the Strait of Magellan and the Beagle Channel, although none nest on Isla Grande, and it can be regularly seen along the coasts of Tierra del Fuego. The marine otter Lutra felina, which once lived in the fjords, and the Southern River Otter Lutra provocax, which was found in the rivers of Tierra del Fuego, almost became extinct in the past because of hunting pressure but both species seem to be showing signs of recovery. The Guanaco is still abundant on Isla Grande.

Plant life on the island and archipelagos, numbering some 370 species, is not especially rich in terms of numbers. However, the species involved, their distribution and adaptations to the particularly difficult climatic, hydrological and soil conditions, make this plant life unique.

On the Chilean side of the Tierra del Fuego much of the animal life and environment are now protected within two of the largest national parks in the country, Cabo de Hornos and Alberto de Agostini, and two Monument Parks, Cisnes Lake and Los Pinguinos while on the Argentinean side the area is protected within the Tierra del Fuego National Park. Argentina has the only Ramsar site in Tierra del Fuego so far, the Reserva Costa Atlántica de Tierra del Fuego which includes Bahía San Sebastián, an important area for shorebirds.

So Charles Darwin referred to the Belize Barrier Reef in 1842, in his study of the origin and evolution of coral reefs. Since then it has become renowned as the largest barrier reef in the Western Hemisphere. Nearly 260km long, it runs from the northern border of the country, where it is only about 1km offshore, south to the Sapodilla Cayes which lie some 40km offshore.

Belize also has one of the most diverse reef ecosystems in the world, with all the main types of reef represented: fringing reefs along the mainland coast; the Barrier Reef itself which grows along the edge of the continental shelf, separated from the mainland by the lagoon; and three offshore atolls (Lighthouse Reef, Turneffe Atoll and Glovers Reef). The presence of atolls is unusual. Most atolls are found in the Pacific, where they form on the top of submerged volcanoes. Very few occur in the Caribbean, and they differ in structure, the three in Belize for example lying on non-volcanic submarine ridges.

Of all wetlands, coral reefs are the most diverse, being home to more species than any other marine ecosystem. Only tropical rain forests rank higher on the biodiversity scale. This huge diversity is a result of careful partitioning of the reef by all its inhabitants - some use the reef at different times of day (many reef species are nocturnal), others share it by eating different food. Although reef diversity is much lower in the Caribbean than in the Indo-Pacific (a result of the geological history of the region), over 1,000 species may nevertheless occur on a single reef. Belize has a particularly high species diversity for the region, with about 65 coral species and over 300 fish species, compared with just over 70 coral species and about 520 fish species in the Caribbean as a whole.

The colourful Queen Angel, one of the 300 fish species recorded at the reef. (Photo: James Beveridge)

Fish and invertebrates (notably molluscs, crustaceans, echinoderms and corals) predominate, but algae are also abundant. More species of fish are found on reefs than anywhere else in the sea, ranging from large sharks to tiny gobies. Most species on a reef are in fact never seen by divers and snorkellers as they are tiny, cryptic invertebrates that live in cracks and crevices and can be equated with the insects of the tropical rain forest. It is also likely that about 90% of all reef species, particularly the small invertebrates, are still undiscovered: SCUBA diving equipment was invented less than 50 years ago, and most reefs have only relatively recently become accessible to researchers. New species are being described all the time. For example, an entirely new biodiversity 'hotspot' has been discovered on the Belize Barrier Reef in the last two years in the semi-enclosed lagoons of the Pelican Cayes, a group of mangrove covered cayes. These have startlingly rich, colourful and unusual communities of sponges, corals, and other reef species encrusting the mangrove roots and lagoon sides; in one lagoon, over 40 species of seaquirts (a small, primitive, chordate) have been found.

Reefs also attract large animals such as turtles including the threatened Hawksbill Turtle, Eretmochelys imbricata (IUCN Red List, 1994), and seabirds such as the Red-footed Booby Sula sula and the Magnificent Frigatebird Fregata magnificens, which come to feed on the smaller inhabitants or which depend on the closely associated seagrass beds and mangrove habitats. Although all three wetland types can and do occur independently of each other, in many areas they form an integrated ecological system. Mangroves thrive in calm, turbid, nutrient rich environments, protect reefs from terrestrial sediments and provide shelter among their roots for many juvenile reef species. The seagrass beds stabilize sediments and also provide an important food source for many reef animals. Coral reefs require clear nutrient poor waters, and play an important role in protecting mangroves and seagrasses from erosion during storms and strong wave action. The Belize reef ecosystem illustrates this well, the reef protecting and being linked with extensive areas of coastal wetlands, lagoons, seagrass beds and mangrove-covered cayes and coastal areas.

In Belize, the coastal waters were used extensively for fishing by the Mayans between 300 B.C. and 900 A.D. Since early this century, the economic role of the reef has increased steadily with the growth of the coastal population. Initially, its importance lay in the fishing industry, with a wide variety of species being harvested ranging from turtles, sharks and finfish, to sponges and seaweeds. Today, lobster and conch are the principal fisheries products, and contribute most of the total value of exported seafood, estimated at over US$10 million in 1995. There is also a domestic fishery for shallow reef fish and a commercial fishery for groupers Epinephelus spp. and snappers Lutjanus spp. However, the main use of the Belize Barrier Reef is now tourism, which is the country's largest source of foreign exchange generating an estimated US$75 million in 1994; hundreds of divers visit the reef each year to experience its delights.

Belize may be one of the last countries in the world to have extensive areas of almost pristine reef but it is also subject to the many threats that are of global concern and which have already seriously degraded an estimated 10% of the earth's coral reefs and currently threaten a much greater percentage. Greatest damage comes from sedimentation, agrochemical run-off, coastal development, tourism and overfishing. Until recently, the main impacts on the Belize Barrier Reef were from natural events such as hurricanes. However, pressures are mounting from a whole range of impacts including escalating residential and hotel development on numerous cayes, the citrus and banana industries which are causing increasing fertilizer run-off, growing numbers of shipping and recreational vessels in the reef-strewn shallow waters, and a steady increase in divers and snorkellers - Hol Chan Marine Reserve alone now receives over 30,000 visitors a year.

Coral reefs have not yet been used among the primary criteria for listing wetland sites under the Ramsar Convention, although the definition of a wetland allows for their inclusion. Of the 11 Contracting Parties to Ramsar in the Neotropics that have coral reefs, only 3 have listed sites that include these habitats (the Grand Cul de Sac Marin in Guadeloupe, Klein Bonaire Island and adjacent waters in the Netherlands Antilles, and North, Middle and East Caicos Islands in the Turks and Caicos) and in all cases the main interest in these wetlands has been other habitats and waterfowl. Belize is finalising the process for joining Ramsar and, in the first instance, will be nominating an inland wetland site. However, several parts of the Belize Barrier Reef would qualify for nomination.

A system of marine and coastal protected areas is being set up as part of the Coastal Zone Management Plan that is being prepared for the country. So far there are three protected areas that include reefs: Half Moon Caye Natural Monument on Lighthouse Reef, Hol Chan Marine Reserve on the Barrier Reef, and Glovers Reef Marine Reserve. A number of other areas are likely to be designated as marine reserves or national parks soon, and many of these will be large areas incorporating a range of wetland habitats including the central section of the Barrier Reef, extensive lagoon and saltmarsh areas as well as vast expanses of estuaries, mangroves and fringing reefs.

In Colombia, the region called Amazonia comprises nearly one fourth of the national territory. However, its inaccessibility prevented intense colonization until very recently and therefore vast areas still can be considered as pristine. The original habitat included a complex mosaic of vegetation types, whose spatial distribution was largely determined by minor variations in topography and soils. Nonetheless, the dominant habitats in the Colombian Amazon (as well as throughout most of the Amazon Basin) can be described as a vast comple