The Ramsar Library

Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands

Edited by T. J. Davis (Ramsar, 1993)

[Note on this reprint edition below.]   [Go directly to the Table of Contents!!]

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)

Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands: Report of the Ramsar Convention Wise Use Project

Edited by T. J. Davis

Ramsar Convention Bureau

October 1993

Published by the Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland.

© Ramsar Convention Bureau, 1993.

The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the Ramsar Convention Bureau.

Reproduction of this publication for educational and other non-commercial purposes is authorized without prior permission from the copyright holder, providing that full acknowledgement is given.

Reproduction for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

Citation: Davis, T. J. (ed.) 1993. Towards the Wise Use of Wetlands. Wise Use Project, Ramsar Convention Bureau, Gland, Switzerland.

ISBN 2 940073 07 4

Desktop published by T. J. Davis using Quark Xpress 3.11 on a Macintosh IIci.
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Acknowledgements
Foreword
Introduction

Chapter 1: In pursuit of the wise use of wetlands

Chapter 2: Case Studies

International:

Towards integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type
Wise use of the Wadden Sea

National:

Canada: The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation
Guinea-Bissau: Coastal wetland planning and management
Uganda: The National Wetlands Programme

Local:

Australia: The Chowilla Resource Management Plan
Chad: Traditional management systems and integration of small scale interventions in the Logone floodplains
Costa Rica: The mangrove forests of Sierpe
El Salvador: Wise use activity in Laguna El Jocotal
France: Developing a wise use strategy for the Cotentin and Bessin Marshes
Hungary: Wetland conservation in Hortobágy National Park
India: Towards sustainable development of the Calcutta Wetlands
Pakistan: Sustainable management of mangroves in the Indus Delta
The Philippines: Wise use and restoration of mangrove and marine resources in the Central Visayas Region
USA: Wetland drainage and restoration potential in the Lake Thompson watershed, South Dakota
Vietnam: Rehabilitation of the Melaleuca floodplain forests in the Mekong Delta
Zambia: Wise use of floodplain wetlands in the Kafue Flats

Chapter 3: Distilling lessons from the case studies

Bibliography

Appendix 1: Guidelines for the wise use of wetlands
Appendix 2: Additional guidance for the implementation of the wise use concept

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This report on the Wise Use of Wetlands Project would not have been possible without the work and contributions of an immense number of people from many parts of the world.

The Ramsar Bureau wishes to thank in particular the Contracting Parties which were members of the Wise Use Working Group: Mauritania (Africa), Islamic Republic of Iran (Asia), Poland (Eastern Europe), Chile (Neotropics), United States of America (North America), Australia (Oceania), and Norway (Western Europe). Special thanks are due to: Steinar Eldøy, who was elected Chairman of the Group, Tom Dahl, Zygmunt Krzeminski, Lawrence Mason, Tim Richmond, Roberto Schlatter, and Ibrahim Thiaw.

Technical expertise for the Wise Use Working Group was provided by: Peter Burbridge, Patrick Dugan, Carel Drijver, Jens Enemark, Geoffrey Howard, Paul Gumonye-Mafabi, François Lorfeuvre, Edward Maltby, Laurent Mermet, Michael Moser, Thymio Papayannis, Tobias Salathé, and Jeroen van Wetten.

Special thanks are due to the Development Assistance Agency of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Government of the Netherlands, which funded the project; to the University of Leiden, Netherlands, and the IUCN Wetlands Programme which were instrumental in proposing and developing some of the case studies; and to the authors of the case studies whose names appear in the present report.

The editor wishes to thank Hervé Lethier, Director of Conservation and Coordinator of the Wise Use Project for the Ramsar Convention Bureau, Mike Smart, Assistant Secretary General of the Ramsar Convention Bureau, Tim Jones, IWRB/Ramsar Liaison Officer, and Diana Fowler and Sue Coyne of The Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust for their assistance in the production of this report.

Foreword

The most significant aspect of modern efforts for environmental protection has been the realization that conservation and development must go hand in hand. This was the main theme of the 1980 World Conservation Strategy and of several other important initiatives including the publication of 'Our Common Future' in 1987 by the World Commission on Environment and Development. Indeed, the need for sustainable development based upon sound conservation principles was the central tenet of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development.

It is therefore interesting to note that one of the earliest legal provisions calling for a linkage between environment and development can be found in the 1971 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat. Article 3.1 of this Convention calls upon the Contracting Parties to formulate and implement their planning to achieve the 'wise use' of wetlands in their territory. Over the years, the Contracting Parties to the Convention have made significant efforts to clarify this responsibility. Guidelines and additional guidance for implementing the wise use concept have been adopted and several of the member States have undertaken innovative approaches for the creation of national wetland policies, as well as site-specific and regional management plans, to ensure that the conservation of wetland areas is achieved within the context of local and regional development activities.

0f course, calls for the integration of environment and development are not enough in themselves. What is urgently required is on-the-ground application of the concept. Hence the value of this publication in demonstrating that the wise use of wetlands is possible, by providing a variety of examples in different social, economic and ecological settings.

However, it is not possible to give the complete and final answer on how to achieve wise use of wetlands. Wise use under one particular circumstance or in one particular wetland may not be wise use under other circumstances, and changes over time may change wise use to unwise use. Wise use is therefore as much a question of focusing on the way of thinking, planning, organizing, verifying and adjusting, as to focusing on actual use itself.

I do believe, however, that this volume, containing as it does the guidelines for, and guidance on, the implementation of the wise use of wetlands, and the wealth of lessons learned from work already undertaken, will provide an important basis for the future wise and sustainable use of wetlands globally. I congratulate the Contracting Parties to the Ramsar Convention for this initiative and most notably the Netherlands for its continued support for Ramsar's wise use work. Norway, one of the first member States to the Convention, has been pleased to play its part in chairing the Ramsar Wise Use Working Group which has overseen the production of this volume. It is encouraging to note that the Kushiro Conference decided that the work of the Wise Use Working Group should be continued by the Convention's newly established Scientific and Technical Review Panel.

Sustainable development has been placed high on the political agenda, both internationally and nationally. Giving continued high priority to implementation of the wise use concept should therefore be an important part of a strategy to strengthen and give more political weight both to the Ramsar Convention and to wetland conservation in general.

Steinar Eldøy
Chairman, Ramsar Convention Wise Use Working Group

 Introduction

Although wetlands are seen still by many people as unproductive and unhealthy, there has been a growing realization of their value during the last twenty years. Governments and scientists have devoted enormous attention to wetlands, and have reached a better understanding not only of their biological importance, but also of their social, economic and cultural functions (de Groot 1992).

The role of wetlands in regulating climate and in reducing the greenhouse effect, through their capacity for retaining carbon, has been scientifically established, especially as regards peatlands which make up almost half the world's wetlands (Maltby et al.1992). It is now widely accepted that wetlands play an essential part in reducing natural risks such as drought and floods. Thus, after years of drainage and reclamation work in the Lake Thompson watershed, in South Dakota, USA, the local authorities took the decision to restore meadows in the lake basin in order to limit the devastating effects of flooding, which had been exacerbated by the destruction of the wetlands (Dahl, this volume).

Wetlands obviously store water but they also improve water quality, as shown by management action in the Chowilla floodplain in Australia (Phillips, this volume), restoration of water meadows in the Hortobágy National Park, Hungary (Végh, this volume), and the use made of wetlands around Calcutta, India, to purify waste water from the city (Ghosh, this volume). They supply numerous natural resources used by local people (Dugan et al. 1990): wood and its derivatives such as tannin in the Sierpe mangroves, Costa Rica (Lahmann, this volume); fish, shrimps and shellfish in the Indus Delta, Pakistan (Meynell & Qureshi, this volume); game in the El Jocotal lagoon, El Salvador (Benitez, this volume); honey and natural essences in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam (Le Dien Duc, this volume).

Both coastal and inland wetlands thus support a very large number of human activities which depend directly on the proper functioning of the wetland ecosystem: farming and grazing in the floodplain of the River Logone in Chad (Kodi Dadnadji & Wetten, this volume); forestry, fisheries, fish farming and tourism in Guinea-Bissau (Campredon, this volume) and the Cotentin marshes, France (Lorfeuvre, this volume); cattle raising, fishing and hunting in the Kafue Flats, Zambia (Jeffery, this volume). Such activities, which contribute to the national product and to the welfare of local people, are totally dependent on the maintenance of the ecological character of the wetlands.

Countries as different and as far apart in so many ways as Canada and Uganda have recognized what is at stake and have adopted national wetland policies. However, in addition to the initial decision made at the highest political level, adopting a national wetland policy requires a legal and institutional framework, consultation and coordination machinery, and monitoring and management tools to put the orientations, guidelines and strategies into effect. The study presented by the Commission of the European Communities on a particular region, the Mediterranean, provides a very useful example of the all too familiar limitations of well-meaning statements. The regional approach adopted by Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands for the management of the Wadden Sea, on the other hand, is an excellent example of how to deal with a wetland subjected to numerous constraints, and in an international context which makes traditional problems even more complex.

The case studies presented in this report show how important wetlands are, particularly in developing countries whose future, and in some cases even survival, is heavily dependent on wise use of resources. They provide examples of experiments in the search for wise use of wetlands and their resources. Other measures which might have been cited include the work to ensure sustainable management of the Kushiro-Shitsugen in Japan, and the long-term approach to conservation in the Kosi Bay Natural Reserve in South Africa (Kyle 1992), with centuries-old traditional forms of animal and plant resource exploitation.

Without anticipating the case studies which follow, there is a clear, recurrent message running through all of them: a lack of political will at the outset, lack of coordination, insufficient use of existing knowledge, fragmentary management, lack of training and absence of follow-up are the main reasons for the continuing degradation and disappearance of wetlands, to the detriment of future generations.

It was no accident that the participants in the International Conference on Water and the Environment, held in Dublin, Ireland, in January 1992 under the auspices of the United Nations, listed the protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems among the great development challenges of the 21st century. Two chapters of Agenda 21 adopted at the ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de Janeiro are also devoted to the subject (Robinson 1992). Much still remains to be done if these obvious facts are to be translated into everyday reality: the disappearance of wetlands is not just a bad memory, it is still all too real (Lean et al. 1990).

There must be no ambiguity about the purpose of the present report. The case studies (Chapter 2) are mostly still at the experimental stage and their final results will not be known for several years, even though it is not too early to draw preliminary conclusions from the experiences obtained (Chapter 3). It would be wrong to expect this work to produce a set of recipes to suit all situations; its aim is rather to help promote the wise use of wetlands by providing eyewitness accounts of important initiatives.

Daniel Navid
Secretary General
Ramsar Convention Bureau
Gland, Switzerland

Chapter 1

In Pursuit of the Wise Use of Wetlands

Pursuant to Article 3 of the Ramsar Convention, "the Contracting Parties formulate and implement their planning so as to promote the conservation of the wetlands included in the List, and as far as possible the wise use of wetlands in their territory".

The first meeting of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, organized in Cagliari, Italy, in November 1980, approved recommendation REC C.1.5 which emphasized that "wise use of wetlands involves maintenance of their ecological character, as a basis not only for nature conservation, but for sustainable development" and expressed the conviction that "the establishment of comprehensive national policies would benefit the wise use of wetlands". Three years later in Gršningen, Netherlands, in May 1984, the parties adopted recommendation REC C.2.3 on "Action points for priority attention" which in its Annex presents a "Framework for implementing the Convention" including national measures designed to achieve the wise use of wetlands. At the third meeting of the conference in Regina, Canada, in June 1987, the parties adopted (in the Annex to the recommendations) a definition of wise use and a first set of guidelines on implementation; furthermore, in recommendation REC C.3.1 they established a Wise Use Working Group whose tasks were "to examine the ways in which the criteria and guidelines for identifying wetlands of international importance might be elaborated, and the wise use provisions of the Convention applied, in order to improve the worldwide application of the Convention".

This working group, comprising one member from each of the seven regions represented on the Ramsar Standing Committee together with a number of expert advisors, met under the chairmanship of Norway at the fourth meeting of the Standing Committee in January 1988. There, and in subsequent exchanges, they produced a report on criteria and proposed a more detailed draft of guidelines on wise use (Appendix 1, this report). The fourth meeting of the conference at Montreux, Switzerland, in July 1990, approved recommendation REC C.4.10, which calls on Contracting Parties to adopt and apply the "Guidelines for implementation of the wise use concept of the Convention" contained in the working group's report. These wise use guidelines call for the establishment of national wetland policies covering all problems and activities related to wetlands, including institutional and organizational arrangements, legislative and government policies, increasing knowledge and awareness of wetlands and a review of wetland priorities in a national context. Recommendation REC C.4.10 also called for the Working Group on Wise Use to be reconstituted to continue the wise use work of the Convention and report back to the next meeting of the conference.

Two workshops specifically on the subject of wise use took place at meetings of the Conference of the Contracting Parties, one in Regina and one in Montreux. Their reports and the papers presented are published in the proceedings of these meetings.

The fifth meeting of the conference, in Kushiro, Japan, in June 1993, approved resolution RES C.5.6, which calls on Contracting Parties to "implement in a more systematic and effective manner, and at international, national and local levels, the guidelines on wise use". A further wise use workshop held during the conference discussed additional guidance for the implementation of the wise use concept. Resolution RES C.5.6 notes the "Additional Guidance for the implementation of the wise use concept", contained in Annex 1 to the resolution (Appendix 2, this report), urging Contracting Parties to implement its provisions.

A key objective of the wise use project was to publish an Action Plan which would identify priority wise use activities in a number of developing countries. The Ramsar Bureau, in cooperation with the authorities of the countries concerned, will be submitting this plan to the Government of the Netherlands and other interested governments and development assistance agencies.

Definitions

As defined in Regina in 1987, "the wise use of wetlands is their sustainable utilization for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem".

"Sustainable utilization" of a wetland is defined as "human use of a wetland so that it may yield the greatest continuous benefit to present generations while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations".

"Natural properties of the ecosystem" are defined as "those physical, biological or chemical components, such as soil, water, plants, animals and nutrients, and the interactions between them".

In this context, the wise use concept will promote national wetland policies through a long-term process and through emergency actions at specific sites, whether or not they are on the List of Wetlands of International Importance.

Implementation of the wise use concept

The concept of the wise use of wetlands has been even more of a focal issue to the Ramsar Convention since the Wise Use Working Group began its work in 1988. Much work has subsequently been done throughout the world on the wise use of natural resources. The present publication reflects part of this work which, thanks to a number of international organizations such as IUCN - The World Conservation Union (and in particular the IUCN Wetlands Programme), has permitted a clearer understanding of the sense and strengths of the concept, which will prove helpful in conserving wetlands.

According to the guidelines adopted in Montreux and published as the Annex to recommendation REC C.4.10, wise use of wetlands involves the establishment of national wetland policies. Whether or not national wetland policies are being prepared, priority actions at national level and at particular wetland sites should be defined. The principal elements of national wetland policies may be grouped in the following sections:

improvement of institutional arrangements so that wetland policies can be fully integrated into the planning process; and the establishment of mechanisms and procedures for incorporating this integrated, multi-disciplinary approach into planning and execution of projects concerning wetlands.

review of existing legislation and government policies (including subsidies and incentives) including, where appropriate, application of existing legislation and policies, adoption of new ones, and use of development funds for wetlands.

increasing knowledge and awareness of wetlands and their values, including exchange of information, propagation of their benefits and values (a statement of which is given), review of traditional techniques, and training of appropriate staff.

review of the status of wetlands in the national context, including compilation of a national inventory, and definition of each wetland's particular values and conservation priorities.

addressing of problems at particular wetland sites, by integrating environmental considerations into their management, regulated utilization, establishment of management plans, designation as appropriate for the Ramsar List, establishment of nature reserves and, if necessary, restoration.

Defining a national wetland policy is often a very long process, and governments may wish to promote priority aspects of the wise use of wetlands before the actual adoption of a comprehensive policy. In this context, they need to identify short-term priority actions to be taken at national level, as well as priority actions at specific sites.

The Wise Use Project

After the Montreux conference, the Government of the Netherlands commissioned the Ramsar Bureau to carry out a three-year project, designed to draw lessons from between six to eight current experiments in the wise use of wetlands from developing countries, selected in such a way as to ensure the widest possible geographical representation in different socio-economic contexts. With the advice of the Wise Use Working Group, the IUCN Wetlands Programme and the University of Leiden, Netherlands, no fewer than seventeen case studies were selected during a meeting of the Wise Use Working Group held in Perth, Australia, at the l8th session of the IUCN General Assembly in November 1990. Australia, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Hungary, Netherlands, USA and the Commission of the European Communities complemented the project with case studies drawn from their own experience. Most of the studies present ongoing activities in which international organizations such as the Asian Wetland Bureau (AWB), Wetlands for the Americas, the Commission of the European Communities, the Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, IUCN and WWF, as well as governments, are directly involved.

Ultimately, more than forty countries, some developed, others developing, were associated with the project and took part in the evaluation of the case studies which were reviewed and analysed by the Bureau and its advisors, and discussed at two meetings hosted by the Netherlands in The Hague in October 1991 and at Texel in September 1992; these countries also participated in the elaboration of the conclusions of the project, notably at a meeting hosted by the United States of America in February 1993.

The recent enhanced understanding of wise use is illustrated by the case studies which follow. The studies examine the problems encountered, the methods employed, the results obtained or anticipated, and the lessons learned. An examination will reveal examples of the multitude of approaches adopted, with the ideal of reaching sustainable utilization of wetland resources while at the same time respecting the natural functions of the ecosystems.

Hervé Lethier
Director of Conservation
Coordinator of the Wise Use Project
Ramsar Convention Bureau
Gland, Switzerland

Chapter 2

Case studies

Australia: The Chowilla Resource Management Plan.
Chad: Traditional management systems and integration of small scale interventions in the Logone floodplains.
Costa Rica: The mangrove forests of Sierpe.
El Salvador: Wise use activity in Laguna El Jocotal.
France: Developing a wise use strategy for the Cotentin and Bessin Marshes.
Hungary: Wetland conservation in Hortobágy National Park.
India: Towards sustainable development of the Calcutta Wetlands.
Pakistan: Sustainable management of mangroves in the Indus Delta.
The Philippines: Wise use and restoration of mangrove and marine resources in the Central Visayas Region.
USA: Wetland drainage and restoration potential in the Lake Thompson watershed, South Dakota.
Vietnam: Rehabilitation of the Melaleuca floodplain forests in the Mekong Delta.
Zambia: Wise use of floodplain wetlands in the Kafue Flats.

Towards Integrated Management of Coastal Wetlands of Mediterranean Type

Tobias Salathé

Introduction

In 1987, the Commission of the European Communities, Directorate-General XI (Environment, Nuclear Safety and Civil Protection), Division for Nature Protection and Soil Conservation, instigated preparatory actions concerning the integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type. A working group was set up in order to allow the necessary exchange of information amongst experts and to coordinate a number of studies which were financed by the EC.

The studies produced by the group cover many of the aspects proposed in the concept of wise use elaborated by the working group of the Ramsar Convention. They can make a significant contribution to a community-wide policy on wetlands, particularly where addressing the problems at specific wetland sites, identifying problems in a regional context, increasing knowledge and awareness of wetlands and their values, addressing legislation and government policies, and improving institutional arrangements (Ramsar Convention Bureau 1990) are concerned.

This paper summarizes and assesses the information gathered and the main ideas created through the work of the group. Some of the wetland areas analyzed by the working group are already serving as tests in the real world of the concepts elaborated by the experts. One such case, concerning the Odiel marshes in Spain, is discussed here. The paper closes with an overview of how the integrated approach to the multiple use of wetland functions and products could be applied at supranational level in order to give concrete procedures and actions to the term "wise use".

The problem

Wetlands are environmentally amongst the most sensitive areas in the European Community. Although they now probably cover less than one per cent of its territory, they are among the most productive and fragile ecosystems. Early Mediterranean civilizations were based around coastal wetlands and depended on them for food, water and building materials. In more recent times these same areas have often been regarded as wastelands. Consequently there has been a massive loss of wetlands, especially in the Mediterranean basin, although data to quantify this are scarce and difficult to obtain.

The rate of destruction of remaining wetlands has accelerated this century and has been rapid over the past 40 years. Wetlands are drained for intensive cultivation, to provide land for urbanization and tourist developments. They are reduced and degraded through infilling and inflow of polluted urban, agricultural and industrial waste waters. Over-fishing, over-hunting and excessive boat traffic deprives wetlands of many of their functions, such as wildlife habitat, food-chain support, and human recreation.

Wetland destruction and degradation often have adverse and unforeseen long-term costs, whilst organizations and individuals can make short-term profits from the conversion of wetlands. In the Mediterranean, drainage of excess run-off in winter can result in water shortages in summer and exacerbate drought situations. Irrigation to overcome water shortages for agriculture can be costly and is usually maintained by high levels of public subsidy. Soil and groundwater salinization, agro-chemical, industrial and urban pollution and disruption of social patterns can result. Destruction of wetland habitat, by whatever means, reduces the abundance and diversity of wetland-dependent flora and fauna, including exploitable fish and shellfish stocks.

The vested interests which cause governments, administrations and individuals to use wetlands in a destructive way are powerful and well financed. Such destructive policies sometimes operate deliberately, for example through publicly declared policies to reclaim land for agriculture. More often, wetland destruction is wrought indirectly, unconsciously or inadvertently. There are strong political short-term disincentives to confront longer-term environmental problems. Financial constraints are of paramount importance. To improve upon insufficient management, unwise development, deterioration and pollution of wetlands and to conserve these sensitive areas more effectively, one has ultimately to confront indebtedness, inappropriate pricing and institutional arrangements that do not work. In order to tackle these problems, one needs good, large-scale examples of case studies and guidelines for adequate management of wetlands.

The approach

The concept for a programme on integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type was realized following the Integrated Mediterranean Programmes (IMP) set up by the European Community in the mid 1980s to improve the socio-economic structures in Greece, southern France and parts of Italy. At that time, it was recognized that these regions suffer from structural weaknesses such as under-developed agriculture, difficult natural conditions, difficulties in marketing their products, the existence of extensive less-favoured areas with unemployment, a low technology level, industrial crises, and large tourist industries that create socio-economic imbalances and poorly organized administrations. IMPs are multi-annual, cover all sectors and must be consistent with other policies, including the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and the Community policies on nature conservation.

In this context, the service for nature conservation (DG XI, B-2) of the European Commission decided that it would be useful to elaborate a baseline concept of integrated management taking into account the particular political requirements related to coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type. The intention was that this concept would serve as a guideline for actions to implement conservation objectives. The concept should enable conservationists to maintain and even to strengthen their position in the dialogue with politicians and lobbyists of commercial claims. An important consideration was that it should help those in charge of the implementation of the Community environment policy at local level as an efficient administrative tool.

The work programme for the development of integrated management structures proposed by the Commission consisted of three types of preparatory actions:

1. The elaboration of a set of studies to analyze practical aspects of specific wetland sites and also the more generally important aspects, including a study on wetland sites of Mediterranean type outside the European Community.
2. The establishment of a technical working group for a period of about three years, consisting of the leaders for the commissioned studies, representatives of interested services of the European Commission and experts of national administrations, in order to allow the necessary exchange amongst experts and to coordinate the work of the commissioned studies; and, on the basis of the results of these studies.
3. The preparation of a generalized analysis and guidelines for policy implementation and practical work in the framework of the integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type (Klein 1988).

A methodology for site-specific problem analysis was proposed which would consider the historical and existing situations at a given site, with an analysis and assessment of existing problems. This would include an evaluation of the factors contributing to the current state, proposals for future actions, and an a priori assessment of the factors which may influence future developments of the area (Figure 1). Such analyses were undertaken for 31 coastal wetland sites in Mediterranean EC member states. Although the main focus was on EC wetlands, for comparative purposes, an additional study dealt with five wetlands of the same type in other parts of the Mediterranean. A number of studies on general management aspects also took place.

Figure 1. Methodology proposed by the EC for the studies on integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type (cf. Klein 1988).

At the end of this first phase of the work programme, more than 60 experts gathered to exchange experiences and debate the concept of integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type. General conclusions on progress with site-specific and problem-related analyses were drawn up and used by the EC Commission as a basis for further work during a second phase.

For this, two sub-groups were created to deal specifically with the Messolonghi Lagoons in Greece and the Odiel marshes in Spain. Each group organized a field visit and workshop to discuss the management problems. A project-planning method, "ZOPP" (German for "objectives-oriented project planning"), was applied to both projects during the workshops. The method required a team approach to visualise the problems and their inter-relation. Team members representing different interests in the wetland identified their respective core problems, their causes and effects. This was built into specific multi-level branch models of causal links of the problems, and the activities needed to solve them for both Messolonghi and Odiel.

The first step of the ZOPP planning method, problem analysis, is concluded when the team is convinced that the essential information has been used to build up a causal network explaining the main cause and effect relationships characterising the problem. The hierarchy of problems is transformed into a hierarchy of objectives which are then analyzed. The next step is to identify potential alternative solutions and to develop a matrix of the actions required. At this stage it is important to identify whether assumptions were made which would influence the planned activities and adversely affect the desired end result. To ensure the success of the actions proposed, it is therefore important to re-examine how realistic the assumptions are which have been made during the planning process.

Additionally, the Wetland Ecosystems Research Group of the University of Exeter applied their Wetland Evaluation Technique to the Mediterranean sites analyzed in detail in the earlier studies. Analysis of the questionnaires facilitated a basic understanding of the dynamics and functions of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type (Maltby et al. 1988).

Achievements

Characteristics of Mediterranean wetlands

Coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type considered by the working group included river deltas and associated riverine habitats, estuaries, coastal lagoons, lakes and marshes, and endorheic lakes and marshes; most, but not all, are directly linked to the sea. Artificial wetlands, of which some are of ecological value (e.g. salt pans) whilst others provide valuable hydrological functions (e.g. reservoirs for irrigation or flood control) were also considered; so too were wetland sites on the Iberian Atlantic coast as they were considered to share the same special features of the characteristic Mediterranean climate.

The contrast of cool wet winters and hot dry summers is reflected in a particular way in the hydrological regime, temperature, water chemistry and salinity of Mediterranean wetlands. Potential evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall for most of the year, during which run-off is infrequent and recharge of groundwater insignificant. Unless such wetlands are fed by external water supplies (either from higher rainfall regions or from the sea), the system is likely to be dry for at least part of the summer. Wetlands directly connected to the sea become periodically highly saline while those without such connections often dry out completely. Surface water run-off and groundwater discharge are essential in supplying coastal wetlands with freshwater, nutrients and other inputs which effectively link marine and coastal wetlands with a much wider hydrological catchment. Non-coastal wetlands situated further upstream and which are often influenced more by an orographically dominated climate and water regime (mountainous regions) were not considered.

Unlike many coastal areas, the Mediterranean has a very narrow tidal range. Water levels and wetland processes are therefore influenced more by storms and wind direction than by tidal cycles. Many of the coastal Mediterranean wetlands form a complex association with non-wetland habitats (dunes, open grassland, scrub, heath and matorral) which are intrinsically involved in the functional support of the wetlands themselves; e.g. dunes acting as aquifers, woodlands providing roosts for wetland birds. Most of the wetland functions are determined by the subtle interplay of freshwater and marine water.

The most prominent processes and functions of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type can be summarized as groundwater recharge and discharge, flood storage and desynchronization of flood peaks, sediment trapping, shoreline anchoring, dissipation of erosive forces, maintenance of water quality, retaining and removing nutrients, food chain support, providing habitat for wildlife, fisheries support and different socio-economic values (recreational, economic, aesthetic and educational). Not all wetlands perform all functions and not all functions are performed to an equal extent (Maltby et al. 1988). Functions also interact (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Matrix showing the interaction between different wetland functions (Maltby et al. 1988).

The most important factors causing environmental problems in coastal Mediterranean wetlands are dam projects, water extraction, soil erosion, agricultural intensification with increasing use of fertilizers and pesticides, salinity control measures, pollution from sewage and industrial wastes, overfishing, hunting and tourist development. Resistance to conservation by local people, internal conflicts between management objectives, and the lack of adapted institutions, adequate finances, scientific resources, and skilled personnel further add to the management difficulties (Baldock et al. 1988).

Aquaculture

A specific study dealt with the problem of how best to integrate aquaculture activities into the management of coastal wetlands (Cataudella et al. 1988). Traditionally, Mediterranean lagoon fisheries have taken advantage of the fact that many marine fish species migrate regularly between the sea and shallow brackish lagoons which they use as spawning grounds. Thus, for centuries, fish traps were installed at strategic links between lagoons and the sea. Such installations are widely distributed along the Mediterranean coast and can be found in every country with coastal lagoons. The study summarized their functioning, ecology, and socio-economics, focusing mainly on the "vallicoltura" in the lagoons of the northern Adriatic and other sites on the Italian coast. In some lagoons, shellfish is also commercially exploited, either with ground-nets or by cultivating the desired species on artificial banks.

The danger of exploiting these resources above a sustainable level is real in several places. On the other hand, aquacultural installations often suffer from dystrophic crises during the hot summer months and from water pollution in the lagoons, which are still used in many places as recipient basins for only partially or untreated sewage. Additionally, piscivorous birds such as cormorants, herons, gulls and terns are seen by fishermen as competitors depleting a resource in which the fishermen have heavily invested. Several studies have investigated the extent of such damage and evaluated means of deterring the birds (with acoustic devices) or preventing them access to the fish (with nets spanning smaller basins). The problems are, on balance, of lesser commercial importance than was initially believed and always restricted to specific localities and seasons.

In places where new aquaculture infrastructures are to be installed, environmental impact assessments (EIA) are needed to assess the capacity of the hydrological regime and the long-term viability of the wetland to support the proposed installation. The sustainable exploitation of such renewable coastal lagoon resources by means of non- or semi-intensive aquaculture (based on traditional methods) is considered by the authors of the study to be compatible with the integrated management and the conservation of coastal Mediterranean wetlands. However, this applies only where the coastal lagoons are clearly zoned in areas where either aquaculture (and fisheries), tourism (boat traffic, surfing, swimming, etc), or conservation (wildlife refuges) are dominant patterns of use. Nevertheless, plans for regular restocking of the commercially exploited species (with fry from fish farms) need to be elaborated to ensure real sustainable exploitation. Further research into the ecology of the species exploited and improved environmental training of personnel working in aquaculture are needed. Increased finances are likely to be needed to compensate landowners, and to cover restoration costs and training programmes (Cataudella et al. 1988).

Integrated management

Sound integrated management of wetlands depends on a clear understanding of the physical, chemical and biological processes which control their functions. General recommendations concern: a) the importance of the catchment scale when examining processes and impacts, as well as appropriate management strategies; b) the need for active monitoring of the water table and hydrological budget of a wider range of wetlands than currently is the case, particularly in the light of increasing pressures on aquifers for alternative water use (irrigation, tourism); c) the assessment of sedimentation rates, inputs from soil erosion in the catchment, and erosion rates at the seaward edge of the wetland complex, together with analysis of the effects of water regulation structures and land use change on the stability and functions of the system; and d) the development of practical restoration or mitigation options (Maltby et al. 1988).

Integrated management can be divided into four main activities: shielding (against negative influences), control (of ecological and socio-economic influences), utilization (of natural resources), and design and structuring (i.e. planning for desired evolutions) (Szijj 1988). None of the studies came up with a concept of integrated management which would have been transferable from the region of its creation to another Mediterranean country, although some basic considerations were repeatedly mentioned. It was considered useful to direct a major effort to follow up the initial analyses in the site-specific studies, taking account of the special features of the ecosystem complexes, the apparent deficiencies of the direct application of existing methodologies and the need for active collaboration with a variety of regional specialists (Maltby et al. 1988).

Above all, integration means the synchronization of opposing interests (in this case in a given wetland and its resources) towards a common goal of conservation and sustainable utilization. If this is done properly, i.e. when all interested parties participate in the process of finding a consensus or compromise, it is likely to be a difficult and time-consuming exercise. To achieve such integration, the roles of the various organizations - governmental and non-governmental, local, regional, national and supranational - need to be clarified.

To give adequate recognition to such an integrated planning procedure, and to demonstrate its importance to other administrations (ministries), it was proposed that an authority for integrated management would be created at the appropriate administrative level, and that a manual on integrated management techniques and procedures would be elaborated (Malakou et al. 1988; Pergantis 1988). Besides having to deal with the (supra)national policy for integrated management, such an authority would have to deal with the different wetlands on a case-by-case basis. It might be useful to regroup smaller wetlands into larger administrative units. Day-to-day management would need to be based on an integrated management plan, and the wetland area would need to be zoned. This zonation would have to include, at least for basic considerations, the whole hydrological catchment area.

Figure 3a. ZOPP analysis of management problems at the Odiel marshes.

Figure 3b. ZOPP analysis of management objectives for the Odiel marshes.

An example - the Odiel marshes

The sub-group created to deal with the Marismas del Odiel, a coastal marsh at the mouth of the rivers Odiel and Tinto next to the industrial town of Huelva on Spain's southern Atlantic coast, met for the first time in October 1989. The ZOPP project planning method was applied to the site (Figure 3) to clarify the issues at stake. This enabled the local office of the regional governmental environment agency, Agencia de Medio Ambiente (AMA), to coordinate a detailed study on the history, the environmental problems and pollution, and the development options for Odiel.

In November 1990, a group of Spanish and foreign experts gathered at the University of La R‡bida to work specifically on functional aspects of and threats to the Odiel marshes, and on the administrative organization and the procedures for decision-making with regard to integrated management. Their conclusions were integrated in a detailed analysis of the history, environmental problems, and management constraints and proposals. Subsequently, AMA published this comprehensive document, including an exhaustive bibliography and specific action points for different organizations concerned with the integrated management of the Odiel marshes (Rubio & Martos 1991).

Lessons Learned

Results of the EC programme

This "Preparatory action concerning the Integrated Management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type" occupied a core group of about 30 experts for roughly three years of part-time work, spending an EC budget of nearly 300,000 ECUs on specific studies and meetings.

So far, other projects, co-financed by DG XI of the European Commission, have relied on the nature conservation sector of the EEC regulation No. 2242/87 on Actions by the Community for the Environment (ACE), which in turn was based on the Council Directive for the Conservation of Wild Birds (79/409/EEC). ACE projects were therefore selected for EC co-financing according to the benefits they proposed to contribute to the survival of threatened bird species (as listed in Annex I of the Directive) by conserving or restoring the particular habitat (in precisely delimited areas) upon which a number of these bird species depend. Article 4 of the Directive mentions specifically the conservation of wetlands, especially those of international importance as habitat for migrating waterbirds (i.e. sites listed or qualifying for listing under the Ramsar Convention). As a result, such ACE projects consisted mostly of land acquisition in order to protect and conserve particular natural habitats.

The programme of actions leading towards integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type was therefore a conceptual novelty for DG XI since it addressed nature conservation issues of a more complicated nature. The partners involved needed to gain experience, and the efficiency of their work should be judged with this in mind. During the process, useful debate took place between the partners, and some very important information on particular sites and the administrative and political structures was gathered, and, in some cases, also presented to a wider audience. At seven sites, ACE projects for land purchase and habitat improvement were already running when the studies on their integrated management were commissioned; at two additional sites, ACE projects were soon to start. The elaboration of the studies on integrated management had a clear influence on many of the ACE projects in broadening their approach to include management aspects.

The mutual exchange of expertise, information and experience amongst the technical and regional experts of the working group on integrated management proved to be highly valuable, both within the group and through outside contacts. The work of this group was essential in preparing the ground for the symposium on "Managing Mediterranean wetlands and their birds for the year 2000 and beyond", held in February 1991 in the Adriatic town of Grado. During the symposium, participants developed "A strategy to stop and reverse wetland loss and degradation in the Mediterranean basin" (Anon 1992). In September 1991, the first informal meeting of a "Mediterranean Wetland Forum" drafted a three-year MedWet Action Plan to be implemented from 1992 to 1995 with co-financing (66%) to the tune of 4.4 million ECUs by the Commission of the European Communities (under the EEC regulation No. 3907/91 on Actions by the Community relating to Nature Conservation; ACNAT), the remainder to be covered by southern EC member states and private organizations.

One may criticize the imbalance of the quantity of paper produced compared with the number of concrete actions following on the ground. Additionally, besides extremely important matters, much rather marginal information was also compiled and buried in a small number of internal draft reports. Some of these reports are unstructured, badly presented, unedited, and exist only in a small number of photocopies. They have most probably never been read by more than a few selected insiders. On the other hand, some authorities (e.g. the Junta de Andaluc’a) printed the reports of the different working groups and published them for wider circulation to concerned specialists, administrators and decision-makers (Martos et al. 1989; Rubio & Martos 1991). This is in line with the principle that the free flow of information is an essential prerequisite for achieving integrated management. The Camargue study even merited publication by a commercial publisher (Boulot 1991).

Although the Messolonghi gulf wetlands study did not produce an easily accessible written output, discussions between the study group members and local people were essential to furthering the understanding of the ecological and management problems of the area's wetlands. They also created awareness at the local and national level of the potential impacts of important developments in aquaculture and hydraulic works, particularly in the Acheloos river delta at the western end of the gulf.

According to the "subsidiarity principle", the role of the EC is limited to initiating activities at Community level without interfering at the regional level. The preliminary actions towards integrated management of Mediterranean wetlands initiated by DG XI need therefore to be followed up at the regional and local level by regional and local initiatives. Where it has not already been done, the results of the valuable preliminary studies need to be edited, published and distributed widely amongst key people. Regions should be encouraged to follow examples set elsewhere. It should be seen as a way of instigating public debate on the issues raised, confronting the different interest groups, and commencing the integration of management proposals at a local and regional level. These follow-up activities, all part of good wetland conservation practice, should receive further EC support.

Ultimately, the implementation of integrated management of coastal wetlands of Mediterranean type should be refined in light of future experience. It can then be adapted and applied to all Community wetlands, including non-coastal wetlands and those of Atlantic type (e.g. peat bogs, tidal marshes). The present programme has laid solid groundwork to this end.

Integrated management and wise use

This paper addresses wetland conservation at the supranational level, i.e. not in the context of managing a particular wetland shared by different states, but trying to establish a policy for sound management covering different wetland sites in different countries. The EC is unique in its structure as a supranational entity with a central administration that was given the power to unify and streamline nature conservation policies, while, at the same time, the implementation of these directives has to be based on national laws and policies. This mix of administrative powers and the existence of powerful lobbies (such as agriculture, industry) at international and national level explains many of the difficulties and the slow progress experienced while working towards the wise use of wetlands and their resources within the EC.

Comparing the EC programme of integrated wetland management with the guidelines for wise use as prepared by the Ramsar Convention working group, it becomes clear that the EC programme has made a substantial contribution towards the implementation of the wise use concept, especially towards the establishment of a community-wide wetland policy, integrating the best parts of the different national wetland policies.

The work programme on integrated management has yet to contribute in any depth to the following fields of the concept of wise use:

1. The review of existing legislation and policies (including subsidies and incentives) which affect wetland conservation;
2. The application of existing legislation and the adoption of new legislation and policies;
3. The use of development funds for projects which permit conservation and sustainable utilization of wetland resources.

In addition, the training of appropriate staff in the disciplines which will assist in implementation of wetland conservation action and policies has barely been touched upon by the studies and the working group. These issues could form the basis for specific programmes in the near future. A study leading to the integration of different, recently-established national and regional wetland policies into a unified community-wide policy would be most beneficial. Above all, it would be preferable to seek to implement effectively, and without delay, the knowledge on integrated management already gained during the work summarized in this paper. 

Tobias Salathé, Wetland Conservation Unit, Station biologique Tour du Valat, Le Sambuc, F-13200 Arles, France

Wise use of the Wadden Sea

Jens A. Enemark

Introduction

The Wadden Sea is a marine wetland area shared by Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. For more than a decade the three countries have cooperated to protect and conserve the Wadden Sea as an ecological entity, and it is included in the List of Wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention. The Convention's concept of wise use has been of major importance in the framework of the trilateral Dutch-German-Danish cooperation as it constitutes a common organizing principle in terms of defining common principles and objectives for a wetland system shared by three countries.

The Wadden Sea is a shallow coastal area with extensive tidal flats, saltmarshes, sandbanks and islands, all subject to formation and erosion by wind and water. It has a coastline of about 500 km, from Den Helder in the Netherlands to the Skallingen peninsula in Denmark (Figure 1). Its width averages some 10 km, although in some areas it can reach a width of more than 30 km. Although it covers an area of almost 8,000 km2, changes in tidal amplitude mean that the Wadden Sea lacks a clear borderline. Tidal amplitude, which changes with the phases of the moon and is affected by wind, is about 1.5 m at the northern and western edges of the region and about 3 to 4 m in the inner German Bight. Twenty-three islands with sand dunes and 14 sandbanks form a barrier to the North Sea.

Figure 1. The Wadden Sea region includes the whole coastal area from Den Helder in the Netherlands to the Skallingen peninsula in Denmark, a coastline of about 500 km.

For marine organisms, the Wadden Sea is a severe environment, yet it is characterized by a very high biomass production and an ecological importance extending far beyond its borders.

Saltmarsh, a transition zone between sea and land, is the habitat of a large number of plant species, most of which are salt-tolerant. Many invertebrates, especially insects and spiders, also depend on the Wadden Sea's saltmarshes, and there are more than 250 endemic species, sub-species and ecotypes.

The Wadden Sea is important for breeding birds and for the numerous passage migrants which feed, moult and roost. Six to twelve million individuals of more than 50 species utilize the area throughout the year.

Of 102 species of fish recorded for the Wadden Sea, 22 species are common, 26 fairly common, 16 scarce, 12 rare and 22 extremely rare. Most are migratory and are therefore only present in certain periods of the year. A number of commercially important fish are dependent on the Wadden Sea, e.g. Plaice Pleuronectes platessa and Sole Solea solea, while in some years a large part of North Sea Herring Clupea harengus stocks are produced in the Wadden Sea.

Until 1974, the population size of the Common Seal Phoca vitulina decreased steadily, due mainly to hunting. The Dutch population only started to increase after 1980, pollution having depressed breeding success prior to this date. There were an estimated 10,000 seals in 1988, after which an epidemic reduced the population by 60%.

The problem

Traditionally, man has used the Wadden Sea for farming, fishing and hunting for many hundreds of years. The Wadden Sea borders on one of the most populated and industrialized areas of Europe where advances in technology allied to industrial development and an increase in recreational activities have had a substantial impact on the ecosystems of both the Wadden Sea and its adjacent areas.

The different forms of impact can be assigned to four categories:

1. Damage to or loss of biotopes as a result of new infrastructure, e.g. embankments and port facilities

The saltmarshes of the Wadden Sea are the largest of their type in Europe, but are a modest remainder of an extensive landscape of salt and brackish marshes, peatland and lakes which, up to some two thousand years ago, occurred in the border region between pleistocene and marine deposits. Embankment for human habitation and the subsidence of peat soil were quickly followed by storm surges which inundated the area. New saltmarshes formed through the sedimentation of sand and silt, often stimulated by human interference. One by one, the inundated areas were diked, yet only after 1600 was it possible to reclaim the land taken by the sea. The pace of land reclamation eventually outstripped saltmarsh formation and the area of saltmarsh gradually decreased. During the last fifty years, about 15,700 ha of saltmarsh have been embanked, an area equivalent to roughly half of the current saltmarsh (Common Wadden Sea Secretariat 1991).

2. Disruption of processes that maintain the productivity and health of the system through the input of nutrients and pollutants which reach the Wadden Sea via rivers, the North Sea and the atmosphere

Rivers are the major source of pollution in the Wadden Sea, the Elbe bringing by far the highest amounts of nutrients and contaminants. Dumping of dredged material, which includes roughly one third of all lead input, is another important source of heavy metals reaching the Wadden Sea. The atmosphere accounts for some 10% of total nitrogen inputs. Based on samples taken at one island in the German part of the Wadden Sea in the period 1988-1990, atmospheric inputs of cadmium are as high as 25% of the total cadmium inputs to the area.

No clear decreasing trend in nitrogen inputs can be found for the total Wadden Sea but phosphorus inputs seem to be decreasing slowly. There are strong indications that polychrorinated biphenols (PCBs) reduce the reproductivity of seals and that substances, or combinations thereof, attack the immune system of seals so that they become more susceptible to infections.

Possible sea-level rise as a result of the enhanced greenhouse effect may pose a substantial threat to the Wadden Sea ecosystem. It is estimated that an average 1-2 cm of sand and silt is deposited every year, against an expected sea-level rise of 0.5-1 cm/year in the coming decades. In addition to this, an increase in the height of the average tide and the subsidence of the sea bed should be added in those areas of the Wadden Sea where gas is extracted.

With the present rate of accretion, it can be expected that island saltmarshes will nearly all disappear, or will be diminished significantly, if future sea-level rise increases to 1 cm/year. Mainland saltmarshes may be able to withstand a 1-2 cm sea-level rise, whereas the tidal flats in the tidal basins with relatively small intertidal areas will tend to disappear even under the influence of a relatively small sea-level rise of 0.5 cm/year. Whether further sedimentation on flats in tidal basins with extended intertidal areas can keep pace with a 0.5-1 cm yearly sea-level rise is, as yet, uncertain.

3. Exploitation of renewable resources, e.g. blue mussels and cockles

Blue mussel fishing is a highly important economic activity in the Wadden Sea, total yields averaging about 100,000 tonnes. The mussel fishery is mainly carried out on culture lots, and currently about 10,800 ha of the Wadden Sea are designated as such.

Mussel and seed fishery have resulted in the complete loss of old (mature) mussel banks in the Dutch Wadden Sea and in a considerable reduction of their number and biomass in the German and Danish Wadden Sea. The impact of culture beds has local effects as well as wider ecosystem effects, such as changes in habitat and species composition, food competition with other organisms and a change in nutrient and primary-production balance in areas with culture beds.

There are further indications that culture beds cause food shortages for other filter feeders and result in lower levels of species abundance, including the number and distribution of birds, in adjacent areas.

4. Disturbance to wildlife as a result of recreation, hunting and military activities

The Wadden Sea region is an important area for tourism. Official figures put the number of tourists staying overnight at between 30-40 million annually, but the actual number is significantly higher; for some areas it may even be 100% higher. The tourist industry has developed into one of the most important activities in terms of income and employment. Most of the islands are fully dependent on income from tourism.

In addition to the loss of biotopes and changing structures within the ecosystem resulting from the construction of tourism infrastructure, e.g. hotels, and the over-exploitation of freshwater resources, tourism causes disturbance to wildlife. Disturbance during the critical May to September period, the peak time for tourism, can reduce the viability of animal populations by lowering reproductive success and by increasing mortality rates.

The approach

Protection

In order to protect the Wadden Sea as an area of international importance, a large part has been given protected area, nature reserve or national park status by the authorities responsible in the three countries. In addition, the Wadden Sea has been designated in the List of Wetlands of International Importance of the Ramsar Convention.

The three Wadden Sea countries cooperate to protect the Wadden Sea as an ecological entity. This trilateral cooperation is based on the Joint Declaration on the Protection of the Wadden Sea (1982), in which the governments undertake to consult each other in order to coordinate their activities to implement a number of international legal instruments in the field of nature protection, e.g. the Ramsar, Bonn and Bern Conventions. Within the framework of this trilateral cooperation, the parties established the Common Wadden Sea Secretariat in 1987.

The wise use concept

The assessment of the current state of the Wadden Sea leads to the conclusion that, although considerable progress in the field of nature and environmental protection has been made on a national, as well as an international, level, the quality of the ecosystem needs to be significantly improved in order to restore and maintain its natural potential, as required by the wise use concept of the Ramsar Convention.

To begin with, the protection measures of the national authorities must be enhanced in order to improve the quality of the ecosystem, and they must be harmonized between the three Wadden Sea countries to be effective. However, the legal and administrative systems of the three countries differ and, as a result, different solutions to basically similar problems impede their mutual effectiveness. It is here that the wise use concept of the Ramsar Convention comes into the picture.

Until now, the national and international Wadden Sea policies have primarily been concerned with the conservation of 'actual values' of parts of the ecosystem, e.g. protecting seals and birds. This, however, provides no guarantee for maintaining the values and potentials of the whole system. In fact there are, as stated above, many indications that the Wadden Sea ecosystem is still deteriorating. In conclusion, better guarantees for maintaining the natural properties of the Wadden Sea ecosystem can be provided by a policy based upon conservation and wise use.

It should be emphasized that the key concept is to increase natural values, which may mean a decrease in actual uses. The extent to which such a policy is implemented is determined by politicians.

The concept of wise use, as applied in the framework of the trilateral Wadden Sea policy, can be visualized by the flow diagram (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Flow diagram of the Wadden Sea wise use concept.

The guiding principle of the Wadden Sea policy is to determine the goal and the nature and direction of policy, based upon the wise use concept. The actual situation of the Wadden Sea can be described in terms of utilization, ecological values and threats, and is relatively well known, although differences exist as to the assessment of the situation.

The reference situation describes the potential natural values of the ecosystem. It is a hypothetical ecosystem composed of up-to-date scientific knowledge and serves as a calibration instrument. Ecological references are values assigned to parameters describing the reference situation. The ecosystem parameters must provide relevant information about an aspect of the ecosystem. Furthermore, the parameters should: a) be easy to measure and be based on sufficient scientific information; b) have political and social appeal; and c) be indicative of human influences on the ecosystem.

Together, the complete set of parameters must provide sufficient information about the quality of the ecosystem, while at the same time they must be limited in order to be applicable in practice. It should be emphasized, however, that there are many problems related to assigning concrete values to parameters describing the Wadden Sea. In evolutionary terms, the Wadden Sea is in its infancy, subject to very strong fluctuations which make it difficult to discern anthropogenic influences from 'background noise'. It is, furthermore, an open and heterogenous system.

Irrespective of the reference situation selected, a number of basic conditions apply with regard to (i) the chemical situation, (ii) the hydrodynamic/geomorphological situation, and (iii) the disturbance situation. Currently, the preliminary basic conditions necessary for achieving the reference situation are that:

• concentrations of chemical substances should be equal to or close to the natural background values;
• the present hydrodynamic/geomorphological situation should be maintained;
• the present level of disturbance should be reduced.

In conclusion, by comparing the actual situation with the reference situation, it can be assessed how far the actual situation is diverging from the reference. In consequence, political targets can be set in order to turn the actual situation in the direction of an ecosystem in which the quality is in accordance with the guiding principle.

Management principles are intermediate between overall policy and politics, linking the guiding principle with the actual situation in the area, where people live, work and pursue recreational activities. Management structures integrate the above elements and contain guidelines for the application of the elements in specific management plans. Feedback is achieved through monitoring and research in order to assess the effects of the measures taken. It can also influence the reference that is currently used in that it provides new insights and, possibly, results in the setting of new political targets.

At the Sixth Governmental Conference on the Protection of the Wadden Sea in November 1991, the above concept of wise use of the Wadden Sea was adopted, with the aim of maintaining the actual values and potentials of the ecosystem as a whole. The wise use concept is the cohesive element in the common, trilateral protection of the Wadden Sea.

Achievements

The guiding principle

The guiding principle of the trilateral Wadden Sea policy is "to achieve, as far as possible, a natural and sustainable ecosystem in which natural processes proceed in an undisturbed way". It aims to:

1. Maintain water flows and the attendant geomorphological and pedological processes;

2. Improve the quality of water, sediment and air to levels that are not harmful to the ecosystem;

3. Safeguard and optimize conditions for flora and fauna including:

• preservation of the Wadden Sea as a nursery area for North Sea fish;
• conservation of the feeding, breeding, moulting and roosting areas of birds, and the breeding and resting areas of seals, as well as the prevention of disturbance in these areas;
• conservation of the saltmarshes and dunes;

4. Maintain the scenic qualities of the landscape, in particular the variety of landscape types and their specific features.

Management principles

The Wadden Sea is not an isolated nature area. It is used extensively by people, whose activities demand common management principles as a basis for the actual conservation and management of the area by the respective national authorities. These are:

1. The Principle of Careful Decision Making, i.e. to make decisions on the basis of the best available information;

2. The Principle of Avoidance, i.e. to avoid activities which are potentially damaging to the Wadden Sea;

3. The Precautionary Principle, i.e. to take action to avoid activities which are assumed to have a significant damaging impact on the environment, even where there is not sufficient scientific evidence to prove a causal link between activities and their impact;

4. The Principle of Translocation, i.e. to translocate activities which are harmful to the Wadden Sea environment to areas where they will cause less environmental impact;

5. The Principle of Compensation, i.e. that the harmful effect of activities which cannot be avoided are balanced by compensatory measures;

6. The Principle of Restoration, i.e. that, wherever possible, parts of the Wadden Sea should be restored if it can be demonstrated by reference studies that the actual restoration is not optimal, and that the original state is likely to be re-established;

7. The Principles of Best Available Technology and Best Environmental Practice, as defined by the Paris Commission.

Common objectives

For each of the common uses, impacts and human activities in the area, common objectives have been set, based upon the above-mentioned principles. Examples which demonstrate the implementation of the principles and the level of common regulations are:

To harmonize the interests of nature protection and the essential safety of an area's inhabitants, there has been agreement on the prohibition of sea-walls and minimization of the unavoidable loss of biotopes through sea defence measures. Measures to protect saltmarshes and dunes have also been agreed in order to allow natural processes to take place, with special emphasis on flora and fauna; e.g. a ban on the application of fertilizers, pesticides and other toxic substances.

It has been agreed to close sizeable areas of the Wadden Sea to cockle and mussel fisheries, including intertidal and subtidal areas, in order to limit their negative ecological impact.

To maintain the recreational values of the Wadden Sea, and to protect sensitive areas for birds and seals, it has been agreed to establish zones where recreational activities, including excursions by ship and recreational boating, is forbidden. In other areas, speed limits for boats are to be set and the use of jet-skis and similar motorized craft may only be carried out in small designated areas. The use of hovercrafts and jet-scooters will be prohibited altogether.

For civil air traffic, minimum altitudes of between 1,500 and 2,000 feet will be set. Lower flight altitudes of 700 to 1,000 feet will be allowed in designated flight corridors in less vulnerable areas.

The hunting of migratory species in the Wadden Sea will be progressively phased out, and the hunting of non-migratory species will only be permitted if it can be clearly established that migratory species will not be harmed. The use of lead shot for shooting over the Wadden Sea is to be prohibited.

Whilst the above activities are carried out mainly in the Wadden Sea and adjacent areas, the input of surplus nutrients and pollution, such as heavy metals and organic micropollutants, originates primarily from the catchment area of the North Sea, and also reach the Wadden Sea via atmospheric pollution. It is therefore necessary to take measures to reduce or, where necessary, eliminate such inputs. For a number of years, the countries adjacent to the North Sea have cooperated to combat pollution, and in this context it has been agreed to reduce by 50%, between 1985 and 1995, the input of nutrients in areas where they cause problems; and to reduce by at least 50% the input of a number of priority substances which are toxic, bioaccumulating and persistent (by at least 70% for dioxins, cadmium, mercury and lead).

In addition, the Wadden Sea countries have taken measures to reduce the direct input of pollutants into the Wadden Sea, prohibit discharges from off-shore installations, and reduce pesticide emissions.

Operational pollution and accidental discharges which originate from shipping will be eliminated or minimized by the establishment of a vessel-traffic-information system for ships carrying hazardous substances; compulsory pilotage for ships of a certain size; and making available adequate port-reception facilities for harmful ship wastes and garbage.

Birds

There is common agreement among the Wadden Sea countries with regard to the protection of migrating waterfowl along the East Atlantic Flyway, of which the Wadden Sea is a core area.

Implementation

The common wise use principles and objectives outlined above are currently being implemented in national instruments, measures and management.

The Wadden Sea countries have agreed the establishment of a special conservation area, for which a coordinated management plan will be prepared. The management plan will include a comprehensive set of measures aimed at achieving common ecological targets by the time of the next Governmental Conference in 1994.

The plan will also give consideration to whether zoning can be used to improve the protection of the Wadden Sea, in particular the designation of adjacent buffer zones in order to enable better regulation of activities outside the Wadden Sea but which impact on the Wadden Sea ecosystem; and to the need to harmonize zoning measures within the Wadden Sea, including the designation of special protection zones.

Lessons learned

The wise use concept plays a vital role in the trilateral cooperation on the protection of the Wadden Sea in that it is the common denominator linking together three countries, each with different legal and administrative structures. As such, it provides the basis for the maintenance of the natural values and resources of a shared wetland system. Such wetland systems often suffer from different measures being undertaken by the different countries involved, with the result that wise use is not achieved for the wetland system as a whole. The wise use principle may thus prove to be an outstanding tool for transboundary cooperation. Common principles of policy and management, and common goals, are therefore indispensable in attempting to manage shared wetland systems in a sustainable way.

Another very important aspect of the application of wise use in the Wadden Sea is the development of a conceptual framework and its implementation in terms of policy and management in the three countries. Two points are worthy of note here. Firstly, the wise use concept combines the conservation of the system's natural values and resources with its sustainable utilization. Secondly, the concept of wise use demonstrates the need to develop measures for assessing the state of the ecosystem, followed by the practical implementation of wise use principles. The development of ‘reference situation’ may prove to be a powerful instrument for the setting of objectives, including the balance between conservation and sustainable utilization, as well as determining appropriate measures.

Constant monitoring of and research into the application of wise use practices are necessary to ensure that objectives are being met. Where new knowledge or insights are gained from such research, targets can adjusted with the aim of improving still further the wise use activities being undertaken in the wetland ecosystem.

This Wadden Sea case study demonstrates the value of viewing wise use from an international perspective, and at different levels: on a global scale, wise use must address a reduction in the greenhouse effect; at the level of migratory flyways for waterfowl, it means adequate protection of habitats which are critical for their survival and life cycles; where it concerns the catchment area of the North Sea, it means a reduction in, and where necessary the elimination of, pollutants and surplus nutrients; at the level of the Wadden Sea as an entity, it means the conservation of the ecosystem and the regulation of human utilization; and at a local level, it might encompass the phasing out of certain activities, including the strict application of zoning.

The wise use concept is a dynamic approach to the problems that wetlands, national or shared, face and, as such, it is a powerful instrument for the conservation and sustainable utilization of wetlands. However, a profound challenge to the Wadden Sea, and the wise use activities being pursued, is sea-level rise as a result of the greenhouse effect. To lessen this effect, the sustainable development of the Wadden Sea requires the application of the wise use principle on a global scale.

 Jens A. Enemark, Common Wadden Sea Secretariat, Virchowstrasse 1, D-26382 Wilhemshaven, Germany.

The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation in Canada

 Clayton D.A. Rubec

Introduction

Wetlands within Canada's borders cover over 127 million hectares (National Wetlands Working Group 1988) and comprise about 24% of the total global wetland resource. Some 29% of these Canadian wetlands are under direct federal jurisdiction, mainly in the northern territories, with the remainder under provincial government, non-government, or private landowner tenure. They provide a major portion of the nation's freshwater supply, significant pollution sinks, interaction with groundwater supplies, as well as watershed flood protection, water quality enhancement, and wildlife habitat.

Canada's wetland resources also provide a significant contribution to the national economy. It is estimated that their total economic value to Canadians readily exceeds CA$10 billion each year (Rubec et al. 1988). Some of the economic sectors that benefit greatly by the presence and ecological functions of wetlands are:

• non-consumptive recreation (photography, hiking, birdwatching);
• recreational and commercial hunting and trapping;
• forest, peat, wild rice and hay harvesting;
• water quality and flood control enhancement;
• market gardening;
• shoreline protection.

The wise application of sustainable development principles to wetland conservation will benefit Canadians in many ways (Rubec & McKechnie 1989). These benefits include:

• augmentation of waterfowl populations and improvement in wetland habitat quality for wildlife;
• promotion of soil and water conservation leading to reduced soil erosion, improved quality of groundwater and less degradation of the national agricultural base;
• reduction of shoreline storm damage and watershed flood impacts;
• buffering of the effects of drought and long-term climate change;
• improvement in coastal and estuarine shellfish and fish habitats and harvests;
• protection of the continental freshwater supply;
• improvement in the quality and availability of urban recreational lands;
• reduction in the impacts of non-point source pollution and acid rain.

The problem

The loss of Canadian wetlands

Current trends and results of monitoring studies indicate Canada has experienced a major loss of wetlands. In total, over one seventh (20 million hectares) of the original wetland area of Canada is estimated to have been converted to other land uses.

The most severe losses of wetlands are coincident with areas of major urban concentration and extensive agricultural development. Since settlement in Canada, up to 65% of coastal saltmarshes in the Atlantic region, 68% of all wetlands in southern Ontario (Canada's most populated area), and 70% of wetlands in prairie agricultural areas and Pacific estuaries have been drained or converted to other uses. Wetland loss in the vicinity of major Canadian cities is as high as 80 to 98% (Environment Canada 1986).

The factors causing wetland decline are many and vary in intensity and geographical focus. The majority (85%) of these losses have been attributed to drainage for agriculture, ongoing since settlement times. Expansion of urban and industrial lands represents 9%, and the development of leisure and recreational properties represents another 2% of the national decline of wetland area. Flooding of large areas for reservoirs for hydro-electricity production and water level management in areas such as the Great Lakes shared with the United States are other important factors.

The approach

The challenge faced by Canadians

While wetland use and conversion have historically contributed to the socio-economic development of Canada, continuing wetland degradation and loss are reaching critical levels in some areas. The challenge is to ensure that Canada's remaining wetlands are conserved and utilized in a sustainable manner and that actions are taken to restore and rehabilitate those critical habitats already affected by human activities.

Federal and provincial governments and the private sector have been actively working to develop effective wetland conservation policies, as well as supportive actions through conservation strategies across the nation. Rubec and McKechnie (1989) have noted that during the 1987 to 2001 period, over CA$1.07 billion has been proposed to be spent on wetland conservation programmes in Canada, a yearly average in that period of CA$77 million. This demonstrates significant commitment by both the public and private sector.

Development of the Federal Wetland Policy

At the federal level, in order to ensure efficient use of public natural resources, greater coordination and guidance among departments was needed. In early 1987, Environment Canada sponsored a Non-Government Organizations Workshop on Wetland Conservation Policy. This workshop developed a series of recommendations directed to all governments in Canada concerning the need for wetland policy. These recommendations were sent to all Environment and Natural Resource Ministers across the country. The Federal-Provincial Committee on Land Use in June 1987 produced a report entitled "A Framework for Wetland Policy in Canada". This report was endorsed by the full committee and members agreed to encourage use of this framework, as appropriate, in their own jurisdictions. Also in early 1987, the Federal Interdepartmental Committee on Land identified the need to develop a wetlands policy statement to supplement the 'wise land use' provisions of the Federal Policy on Land Use. The Federal Water Policy adopted in 1987 also identified wetlands conservation as a significant water resource issue.

A major national policy conference, the Sustaining Wetlands Forum (1990), produced recommendations for action on wetland conservation and management, including a call for all jurisdictions in Canada to adopt mutually supporting wetland conservation and management policies. This conference included a keynote address by the Prime Minister of Canada who called for urgent action to conserve the nation's wetland resources. Subsequently, the Green Plan announced the Federal Government's commitment to adopting a Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation (Government of Canada 1990).

One of the original considerations in the development of a federal wetland policy was that it should be crafted to deliver Canadian commitments to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance wherever possible. It was also apparent that greater influence on land use decisions by federal departments and agencies would assist in meeting Canada's commitments under the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. More recently, following Canada's endorsement of the International Convention on Biodiversity, Canada expects that its federal wetland policy will form a portion of implementation initiatives for this important and far-reaching international agreement.

The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation

The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation (FPWC) announced by the Government of Canada on 9 March 1992 is one of the first of its kind by a national government in the world. The FPWC focuses on the sustainable wise use of wetlands in Canada, consistent with the Wise Use Concept developed by the Ramsar Convention.

The stated objective of the Government on Canada as articulated in this new Policy with respect to wetland conservation is: "to promote the conservation of Canada's wetlands to sustain their ecological and socio-economic functions, now and in the future".

In support of the above objective, the Federal Government of Canada, in cooperation with the governments of its ten provinces and two territories, as well as the Canadian public, will strive to achieve the following goals:

• maintenance of the functions and values derived from wetlands throughout Canada;
• no net loss of wetland functions on federal lands and waters;
• enhancement and rehabilitation of wetlands in areas where the continuing loss or degradation of wetlands or their functions have reached critical levels;
• recognition of wetland functions in resource planning, management and economic decision-making with regard to all federal programmes, policies and activities;
• securement of wetlands of significance to Canadians; and
• recognition of sound, sustainable management practices in sectors such as forestry and agriculture that make a positive contribution to wetlands conservation while also achieving wise use of wetland resources;
• utilization of wetlands in a manner that enhances prospects.

The FPWC is focused on areas of federal jurisdiction and management of wetlands under direct federal authority. As Canada is a federal state, wetlands in its ten provinces are generally under provincial regulation except on federal lands such as national parks. However, in its two northern territories, most wetlands are under federal management. Hence, while the Policy will apply directly to an estimated 29% of Canada's wetland base (its federally managed wetlands), it also will touch on how the Federal Government affects other wetlands through its federal programmes, policies and shared fiscal programmes with the provinces and territories.

Federal Policy Strategies for Wetland Conservation

The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation outlines seven strategies to provide for the wise use and management of wetlands so that they can continue to provide a broad range of functions on a sustainable basis. These strategies are aimed at building on past achievements and working in concert with ongoing initiatives for wetland conservation, in particular the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. The Policy promotes a non-regulatory, cooperative approach. The Policy Strategies set out direction to put the federal house in order, to manage federal wetlands, and to ensure delivery of effective wetlands science and public awareness actions both nationally and internationally. The seven strategies are focused on:

1. Developing Public Awareness.
2. Managing Wetlands on Federal Lands and Waters and in Other Federal Programmes.
3. Promoting Wetland Conservation in Federal Protected Areas.
4. Enhancing Cooperation with Federal, Provincial, Territorial and Non-government Partners.
5. Conserving Wetlands of Significance to Canadians.
6. Ensuring a Sound Scientific Basis for Policy.
7. Promoting International Actions.

The Policy will affect all Federal Government programmes and institutions in Canada. Implementation guidelines are to be developed in consultation with affected individual departments and agencies. The lead agency with regard to the policy is the Canadian Wildlife Service, Environment Canada. A public report in either English or French is now available outlining the background to the development of the Policy, the rationale for wetland conservation, and the full text of the Policy and its seven Strategies, as well a glossary of terms.

This wetland policy at the federal level provides:

• a signal of commitment to wetland conservation, for Canadians and the world community, and a catalyst for mutually supporting actions across the country;
• a heightened profile for the issue to call attention to wetland socio-economic and environmental benefits, and to ensure that wetlands receive adequate consideration throughout the Federal Government;
• direction and support for individual decision makers to ensure that opportunities for the sustained wise use of wetlands are realized, and to avoid or resolve wetland-related conflicts;
• clarification of specific federal responsibilities for wetlands, as well as a synthesis of existing legislation, policies and programmes which already contribute to wetland conservation;
• a consistent, coordinated approach among the many federal agencies which influence wetlands, aimed at adjusting activities which conflict with wetland conservation and ensuring progress toward specific objectives and goals.

'No Net Loss of Wetland Functions'

One of the goals of the federal policy is to ensure that its programmes, policies and expenditures do not result in a net loss of wetland functions. 'No net loss of functions' includes balancing unavoidable losses of wetlands with mitigatory action, such as replacement, so that further reductions to wetland functions may be prevented. In general, this means that, where development of particular wetlands in critical areas must proceed, wetland loss must be mitigated by replacement of wetland functions in close proximity. In developing this concept in Canada, guidelines must be developed and will call on the expertise and experience developed in 'no net loss of habitat' applications in other jurisdictions. To this end the Federal Government, in cooperation with the North American Wetlands Conservation Council (Canada), has recently published a report synthesizing North American experience and recommendations for implementing 'no net loss' in Canada (Lynch-Stewart 1992).

How will we conserve wetlands of significance to Canadians?

To date, many individual wetlands have been acquired for conservation objectives across Canada by various levels of government and the public, including landowners, non-government organizations and the private sector. However, these efforts, when considered collectively, fall short of comprehensive protection of the widespread interest in wetlands across Canada. A more systematic approach is required.

One strategy in the FPWC is securement of a 'network of wetlands of significance to Canadians' which would involve governments, non-government agencies, the private sector and individual landowners. The network would include:

a) Exemplary wetlands - those characteristic of both the common and the rare types of wetlands in each wetland region of Canada;

b) Strategic wetlands - those essential to meeting a goal or objective specific to a wide spectrum of ecological, social and economic values associated with wetland function.

Establishment of this network will require an assessment of those wetlands in Canada that are already secured and a systematic identification of those wetlands of significance to Canadians which should be secured. This identification of sites would then be considered by the many government and non-government parties which already participate in wetland conservation across Canada. The parties will be encouraged to use this list of candidate sites for setting priorities on their own agendas. In this way, the emphasis could be on establishing a systematic, coordinated approach to 'filling in the gaps' of a truly cooperative Canadian network of secured wetlands Ð which exemplifies all the wetland regions of Canada and conserves the full range of functions which wetlands strategically support.

Such a network is essential to ensure the maintenance of Canada's diverse wetland heritage, to exemplify sustainable use of wetlands, and for genetic conservation, research and educational purposes. These wetlands could serve as benchmark sites for monitoring long-term change to ecosystems and for assessing the effectiveness of impact mitigation actions. Such a network has been proposed in the United States and exists in other countries such as Finland and Norway.

Achievements

National

To promote wetland programme coordination in Canada, the Federal Minister of the Environment created the North American Wetland Conservation Council (Canada) in April 1990. This Council, working closely with a parallel council in the United States and provincial and non-government partners, acts as the senior Canadian body for coordinating implementation of the North American Waterfowl Management Plan. It has also established a national Secretariat and is publishing a new report series entitled the 'Sustaining Wetlands Issues Papers' on wetland science, management and policy topics of national interest.

Development of provincial wetland conservation and management policies are under way in several provinces, including Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Government of Ontario announced a provincial wetland policy in June 1992, focusing on implementation through its Planning Act. In the long-term, mutually compatible wetland policies across Canada by all provincial and territorial governments as well as the Federal Government are a national ideal. Hence, it is critical that these provincial wetland policy processes are complementary to the federal initiative. The concepts of no net loss of wetland functions and recognition of sustainable wise use of wetland resources, as well as definition of key wetland areas for protection, are common themes across Canada. The creation of the Canadian Wetlands Conservation Task Force in March 1991 has also resulted in a tracking and delivery mechanism for wetland conservation and policy initiatives across Canada.

To date, governments and non-government groups have promoted a non-regulatory approach in most jurisdictions. In this regard, the introduction of non-regulatory wetland management and conservation policies is proceeding. Each of the provincial governments has developed a public review or consultation process for their wetland conservation strategies or policies. In two provinces, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick, complementary regulatory procedures that result in protection of wetlands through environmental assessment of wetland development proposals are now in use.

An essential element in wetland management is the need for a nationally-standardized approach to wetland site evaluation for planning and decision-making regarding the use of these wetlands. In 1988, Environment Canada and Wildlife Habitat Canada initiated a joint research project called 'Wetlands Are Not Wastelands'. The final report of this project, "Wetlands Evaluation Guide" (Bond et al. 1992), provides a new planning tool in Canada for step-by-step analysis of wetland values and development decision-making.

International

One of the major considerations in developing The Federal Policy on Wetland Conservation was that it should deliver Canadian commitments to the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance wherever possible. Few other nations have developed national wetland policy strategies. The FPWC in Canada focuses on the sustainable wise use of wetlands in Canada, consistent with the Wise Use concept developed by the Ramsar Convention. The Canadian policy may become a model for other governments internationally. Several countries have already utilized key elements from the draft versions of the Canadian policy in the development of national wetland strategies and policies. Others have expressed interest in modelling elements of the Canadian policy experience.

Canada is a world leader in the Ramsar Convention, having designated 30 sites as of 1992 covering in excess of 13,000,000 hectares of internationally significant wetlands (Gillespie et al. 1991). Canada has a special contribution to play in global wetland conservation, with the longest coastline of any nation in the world, 9% of the world's freshwater, 24% of the world's wetlands located within its borders, and the second largest peatland resource base of any nation in the world. In particular, Canada is ensuring the continued availability of wetland habitat to sustain Canadian migratory bird species along the western hemisphere flyways, improve the management of transboundary resources such as water, and contribute to the maintenance of the global environment.

To date, numerous valuable international precedents have been set. The 75th Anniversary of the Convention for the Protection of Migratory Birds between the United States and Canada was marked in July 1992. Implementation of this Convention has allowed a recovery of depleted waterfowl populations to a level that now generates several billions of dollars annually to North American economies. However, large-scale alterations of the wetland and grassland habitat base by agriculture, urbanization and industrial activities have affected the distribution and abundance of several important duck populations.

The North American Waterfowl Management Plan has been developed jointly between Canada, the United States and Mexico since 1986 to reverse or modify activities that destroy or degrade waterfowl habitat, primarily wetlands. This multilateral initiative is proposed to invest over US$1.5 billion in wetland conservation and management. The Plan recognizes that, in the face of major alterations to the landscape by man, the continued maintenance and restoration of wetlands will be necessary to provide suitable habitat for waterfowl and many other wildlife species. To date, ove